Reproduction in higher organisms

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Reproduction in higher organisms
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PlantsAngiosperms Gymnosperms

• Are seed plants like pine(conifers)
• Have naked or uncovered seeds.

• Are Flowering plants like rose, magnolia
• Have covered seeds.They protect the seed.

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PlantsAngiosperms Gymnosperms
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Reproduction in flowering plants

• Gametes are formed in reproductive organs. Anther
  and ovary
• The gametes which are formed by meiosis, undergo
  mitosis. Meiosis mitosis
• Plant embryos are protected and fed in seeds.
• Pollen transport is specialized. Wind, water,
  insects.
• Diploid (2n)stage is developed.
• Pollination and Fertilization events are
  different.

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Flower structure
The female part is the pistil. The pistil usually
is located in the center of the flower and is
made up of of three parts the stigma, style, and
ovary. The stigma is the sticky knob at the top
of the pistil. It is attached to the long,
tubelike structure called the style. The style
leads to the ovary which contains the female egg
cells called ovules. The male parts are called
stamens and usually surround the pistil. The
stamen is made up of two parts the anther and
filament. The anther produces pollen (male
reproductive cells). The filament holds the
anther up.
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Flower structure

• If a flower holds male and female reproductive
  organs it is a full flower(perfect). Tomato,
  apple, cherry
• If a flower has only one of the reproductive
  organs, it is imperfect(unisexual) flower.
• If an individual plant is either male or female
  the species is regarded as dioecious.
  Poplar(Kavak), salix(sögüt), fig (incir)
• However, where unisexual male and female flowers
  appear on the same plant, the species is
  considered monoecious. Pine(Çam), corn (misir),
  walnut(ceviz), hazelnut(findik)

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• Self pollination

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Pollination
Fertilization

• After pollination a tube grows down the style and
  enters the ovary The generative nucleus divides
  into 2 by mitosis and form 2 sperm cells.
• One of the sperm cells unites with egg to form
  zygote(2n) or embryo.
• The other sperm cell unites with polar nuclei(2n)
  and form endosperm(3n) Double fertilization in
  angiosperms.

• is the landing of pollens on stigma.
• Self pollination
• Cross pollination

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Formation of male gamete
Formation of female gamete

• Anther 4 Pollen sac
• Polen mother cell (2n)
• Meiosis
• Microspore(n) (4 Cells)
• Mitosis
• Pollen(çiçek tozu) (n)(4 cells)
• (vegetative nucleus(tüp), generative nucleus)
• Mitosis
• 2 Sperm cells (n)(8 sperms)

Ovary Ovule (tohumtaslagi) Megaspore mother
cell (2n) Meiosis 4 Megaspores (n) 3
disappear, 1 stays alive 1
Megaspore(n) 3 Mitosis Embryo sac ( 8
nucleus n) Egg 2 synergits 2
polars 3 antipods
v g
v g
v g
v g
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Formation of male gamete in Angiosperms

• Pollen mother cells(microspore mother cell) (2n)
  undergoes meiosis in pollen sac and forms 4
  microspores(n).
• Microspres undergo mitosis and forme pollen with
  2 nuclei. (vegetative and generative nucleus)
• Vegetative nucleus forms pollen tube when it
  lands on stigma during pollination.
• Generative nucleus divides by mitosis and form 3
  sperm cells.

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Formation of female gametes

• Megaspore mother cell(2n) in the ovule undergo
  meiosis and form 4 megaspores.(macrospres)
• 3 of the megaspores die and one lives.
• 1 megaspore undergo 3 mitosis and forms embryo
  sac with 8 nuclei.
• 1 is egg cell, 2 synergid cells support egg, 3
  antipod cells and 2 polar nuclei.

• Double Fertilization in Angiosperms
• 1 (n) of the two sperm cells fertilizes egg (n)
  and form the zygote(2n) than the embryo.
• The other sperm cell fertilizes polar nuclei(2n)
  and form a triploid (3n) structure.

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Fertilization and pollination in
Angiosperms(protected seed plants)
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Gymnosperms- Pine

• Seed is not covered. So seed is naked.
• Usually male and female organs are on the same
  plant but in different parts.
• There is only one fertilization. Embryo is 2n,
  endosperm is n
• They pollinate by wind.

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Pollination and fertilization in
gymnosperms(naked seed plant)
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Seed and fruit

• Zygote Embryo
  2n
• 3n(triploid)cell Endosperm- food
  supply(3n)
• Ovule Seed and seed
  coat(testa)(2n)
• Ovary Fruit (2n)

A fruit is a ripened ovary
                    exocarp outer skin
mesocarp fleshy to fibrous middle endocarp
stony or bony "pit" coconut, olive, peach,
cherry, apricot, almond, avocado, etc..
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                    aggregate fruit A fruit
that develops from a single flower with several
to many pistils (ie. carpels are not fused into a
single pistil)
tissue not associated with ovary (such as the
receptacle) contributes to accessory fruit
formation
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• Meyve sadece disi organin yumurtalik dokulari
  tarafindan meydana getirilirse bunlara gerçek
  meyve denir. Örnegin seftali, kayisi, üzüm.
• Yumurtalikla birlikte çiçek tablasi, taç ve
  çenek yapraklar beraberce geliserek meyve
  olusturuluyorsa bunlara yalanci meyve denir.
  Örnegin Çilek, elma, armut.
• Bir tane disi organdan meydana gelen meyvelere
  basit meyve denir. Örnegin Kiraz, erik, elma.
• Birkaç tane disi organdan meydana gelen
  meyvelere ise bilesik meyve denir. Örnegin
  Ahududu, bögürtlen.
• Ceviz, findik, kestane gibi bitkilerin meyveleri
  zamanla sertlesip kurur. Tohumlari yenilen bu
  meyvelere kuru meyve denir.

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REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

• In animals gametes are formed only by meiosis.
  Gametes fertilizes and form the zygote or embryo.
  Fertil,ization can be inside or outside of the
  body.
• External fertilization is seen in fishes,
  molluscs, frogs. SSperm and egg unites in water
  and zygote develops in water.
• Internal fertilization occurs inside of the
  female animal. This process enables easy
  fertilization . Male animal transfers the
  gametes/sperms) to the genital tract of the
  female. Sperms are in a liquid inwhich they can
  move easily and find female gamete (egg) and
  fertilizes it. Unfertilized aggs are thrown out
  of the body and useless. Sharks, dolphin, whale,
  humans

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Internal and external fertilization

• It is difficult to find and fertilize the egg in
  external fertilization.
• The development of the zygote and embryo is very
  difficult in external fertilization.
• The gamete number should be large to maintain the
  fertilization.

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Which of them is common in all internal
fertilization types?

• I. The egg number is reduced than the external
  fertilization
• II. Development of the Reproductive organs
  encourage fertilization.
• III. The possibility of the fertilization of the
  egg is very low.
• a. Only I b. Only II c. Only III
• d. I and II e. I, II and III

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Internal fertilization in birds
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Egg types and properties

• Eggs are different according to their vitellus
  amount. According to the egg type the
  developmental type is diffrent in animals.

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• The vitellus amount is more in animals with
  external fertizitaion and external development
  than the animals with internal fertilization and
  internal development. The animals with external
  fertilization and external development dont have
  protective layers of amnion, chorion and waste
  storing allantois.
• The vitellus amount is more in animals with
  internal fertilization and external development.
  These animals have protective layers of amnion,
  chorion . Their waste storing part allantois also
  gets bigger during the development of the embryo.

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• The animals with internal fertilization and
  internal development dont have so much vitellus.
  Because the exchange food with placenta. Amnion
  and chorion is well developed. Allantois is very
  small and doesnt grow. Because they also
  exchange waste material by placenta with mother.

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Reproduction in humans

• The fertilization occurs inside of the body and
  embryo develops inside of the mother.

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Formation of egg in humans
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• Meiosis occurs in ovaries. But the meiosis in
  humans is unequal division. Ony one oocyte is big
  and can live and be fertilized. Oocyte develops
  with follicle cells aroud it. Follicle cells
  protects and nourishes the egg. Only one follicle
  with one egg gets mature in one month. Every
  month one egg is thrown out(ovulated) from the
  ovary.
• The ovulated oocyte enters fallopian tube. The
  fertilization happens in the fallopian tube.
• After fertilization zygote forms and begins
  mitotic divisions.
• The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian
  tube and reaches uterus where it binds and
  develops.

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Formation of Sperms in humans
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• Spermatogenesis
• Spermiogenesis

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• Sperm formation occurs in seminiferous tubules of
  testis.
• Spern mother cells(spermatogonia) undergoes
  meiosis. But these cells have cytoplasmic
  bridges. These cytoplasmic bridges enables
  simultaneous maturation of sperm cells.
• Sperms taht are formed at the end of the meiosis
  dont have the mobility, they undergo some
  changes. They lose their excess cytoplasm and
  produce flagella to move. Most of the mobility is
  gained in epididymis. The entire process takes
  100 days.

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Anterior pituitary FSH- Growth of follicle,
secretion of estrogen LH- Ovulation Ovary
secretes Estrogen- thickening of
uterus Progesteron- thickening of uterus Corpus
luteum The follicle cells stayeing in ovary
after ovulation forms corpus luteum. Secretes
estrogen and progesteron.

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Main stages in female menstrual cycle

• Follicle stage Follicle with egg cell develops
  in the ovary (during 5-14 days) (FSH, estrogen)
• Ovulation stage Egg is thrown out to fallopian
  tube.(during 14-15 days)(LH, estrogen)
• Corpus Luteum stage the cells in the ovary
  produces hormones. These hormones prepare uterus
  for a possible fertilization. (15-28 days)
  (progesteron,estrogen)
• Menstruation stage If there is no fertilization,
  hormones decrease and endometrium is thrown out
  from the body. (0-5 days) (FSH)

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Ovulation stage
Follicle stage
Corpus Luteum stage
Menstruation stage
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Hormonal control of female reproductive system

• Hypothalamus

Releasing Factor

• Ant. Pit.

LTH- Luteotropic hormone acts on mammary gland
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH Development of
follicle
Luteinizing hormone LH Ovulation

• Ovary

Feedback
Corpus luteum
Folikül
Estrogen
Progesteron
Thickening of endometrium Development of repr.
organs
Preparation to pregnancy
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Hormonal control of male reproductive system

• Hypothalamus

Releasing factor RF

• Ant. Hypophysis

FSH Spermatogenesis
LH Hormone production

• Testis

Seminiferous tubules
Testosteron
Androgen
Spermatogenesis Male properties
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Fertilization
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Fertilization

• Fertilization happens after ovulation in
  fallopian tubes.
• Sperm cells penetrate to the cell membrane of the
  egg and acrosome vesicle help penetration. It has
  hydrolytic enzymes. Only sperm nucleus enters
  egg. When it enters nuclei of gametes unite and
  form 2n zygote. Embryo forms from zygote with
  mitotic divisions.
• Zygote undergo mitosis during its journey to the
  uterus. There it binds to the endometrium
  (implantation).

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SPECIES  ADULT MASS/kg GESTATION PERIOD/weeks
African elephant 6000,0 88,0
Horse 400,0 48,0
Grizzly Bear 400,0 30,0
Lion 200,0 17,0
Wolf 34,0 9,0
Badger 12,0 8,0
Rabbit 2,0 4,5
Squirrel 0,5 3,5

• http//www.saburchill.com/chapters/chap0038.html

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Development in plants

• Dicotyledones

• Monocotyledones

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Germination

• Seeds have very low water content. They have to
  take in water to facilitate reactions(enzyme
  activity).
• Seeds take in water and swell. Testa(seed coat)
  bursts.
• Enzymes become active. Amylase breaks down starch
  into glucose and use them in cellular
  respiration. Proteases breakdown proteins in the
  endosperm.
• Molecules are used in the growth of the embryo
  until photosynthesis.

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• e
• f
• a b c d

Wet weight
a-b seed is inactive B-c germination begins,
absorbs water C-d seed uses food stores D-e
plant starts photosynthesis and produces new
cells E-f plant flowers, and dies
time
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Seed structure

• Seeds contain an embryo plant.
• Radicle will form root
• Plumule will form shoot
• Cotyledones store food.
• Testa protects embryo.

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Monocotyledones-(tek çenekli)
Dicotyledones-(çift çenekli)

• The first leaf is single.
• Seed is whole (one part)
• Leaves are double veined
• Petals are 3 or multiples of 3
• Vascular bundles are not regularly arranged.

• The first leaf is double.
• Seed has 2 parts.
• Leaves are net veined
• Petals are 4 or 5
• Vascular bundles are regularly arranged in
  circle.

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Factors affecting plant development

• Environmental conditions
• temperature
• light
• Soil
• Water
• Gases
• Gravity
• Nitrogen and carbohydrates
• Biotic factors

• Hormones
• Encouraging development
• Auxin
• Gibberellin
• Cytokinin
• Stopping development
• Abscisic acid
• Ethylene

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Development in animals

• An organism starts its journey as 1 cell(zygote)
  and become an ornism with millons of different
  cells. The processes which make them many and
  different are as follows
• Cell division(segmentation) Zygote divides by
  mitosis.
• Growth The increase in mass by feeding and
  division.
• Differentiation Cells differentiate to form
  different kinds of cells by gene activation.

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Nature or nurture

• http//history1900s.about.com/od/auschwitz/a/menge
  letwins_2.htm
• http//www.wordwiseweb.com/AUSCHWITZ/AUSCHWITZ/twi
  ns.html
• http//www.dusunenadam.com/2004/2004_06_07.html
• http//www.ists.qimr.edu.au/
• http//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/art
  icle/2005/07/04/AR2005070400845.html
• http//www.sciencenews.org/articles/20050709/fob1.
  asp
• http//www.niehs.nih.gov/research/clinical/program
  /groups/geigroup.cfm
• http//www.libraryindex.com/pages/2233/Genetics-En
  vironment-TWIN-STUDIES.html

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Extraembryonic Membranes

• Extraembryonic membranes functions in protection,
  feeding and development of the organism.Birds,
  mammals, reptiles have extraembryonic membranes.
• Amnion membIt is filled with amnion fluid.
  Protects embryo and prevents drying.
• Vitellus memb It is attached to the digestive
  system. It has egg yolk to feed the developing
  embryo
• Allantois memb It is attached to the digestive
  system(last part). It stores wastes.
• Chorion Protects embryo and other
  membranes(structures). It also helps for gas
  exchange with allantois.

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Development of a bird embryo
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General rules for embryonic development

• Division The number of the cells increase. But
  the volume of the cells decrease. The total
  volume equals to the zygote.
• Gastrulation Cell diffrentiation starts. 3
  embryonic layers are formed. Endoderm, ectoderm,
  mesoderm.
• Organogenesis Development of organs

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Developmental stages
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1. Division

• The cells formed by mitotic divisions are called
  as blastomeres. When they look like berry they
  are called as morula. The cells push each other
  and form a space inside and this space is known
  as blastocoel. This stage is called as blastula.
  Each cell in blastula have the capacity to form a
  new indiviual.

During division number of the cells increases
but their volume decreases.
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2. Gastrulation

• After blastula cells begin to differentiate and
  move. Embryonic layers are formed. These layers
  will form the systems of the body. In gastrula
  cells form a permanent space inside. This space
  later will form the digestive tract of the
  organism.

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• During gastrulation cell layers effect each
  other. In that way differentiation speeds up.
• This differention with the effect of other cell
  layers is called as induction(uyarilma). If the
  tissues from a layer is transplanted to anoy-ther
  place, they can develop into a different organ.
  Spemann is the scientist who investigated this
  phenomena .

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Embryonic Induction

• Cell differentiation and formation of the organs
  are the results of the gene activation.
• The interactions between cells effect the gene
  activation.
• The interaction between Mesoderm and ectoderm,
  will cause the development of vertebrae from
  mesoderm and neural tube from ectoderm.
• During the formation of eye, neural ectoderm and
  head ectoderm interact.

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The relative position of particular cell layers
helps determine the organs that develop.
Inducer cells produce a protein factor that binds
to the cells of the target tissue, initiating
changes in gene expression. Development is a
process of progressive restriction of gene
expression. At the stage called commitment,
every cell's fate becomes fixed.
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• 1. He took out the upper ectoderm of the embryo
  and put the dissected part into the tissue
  culture. Embryo without upper ectoderm developed
  into a full embryo without neural tube but the
  ectoderm didnt developed into neural tube.
• He thought that ectoderm needs another cell
  layer to differentiate into neural cord.

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• He cut the upper ectoderm open and took out the
  mesoderm below it. Then he closed the ectoderm
  again. He observed that neural cord didnt form
  from the ectoderm.
• He thought that mesoderm has a role on ectoderm
  for neural tube differentiation.

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• Spemann used 2 embryos in this experiment. He
  took out the mesoderm below the ectoderm from one
  of the embryos and transplanted it to the
  mesoderm of the second embryo(to a different
  part). First embryo didnt form a neural tube,
  but second embryo formed 2 neural tubes (one is
  normal one, the other is the transplanted one)
• He thought that mesoderm should effect the
  ectoderm of the embryo fort he formation of the
  neural tube.

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Eye developmentEye is formed with the induction
of neural and head ectoderm. Neural ectoderm
form the eye cup(retina) and the head ectoderm
will form the lens and cornea of the eye.
Neural tube formation
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3. Organogenesis

• The development of organs and tissues from the
  embryonic layers is known as organogenesis.
• Gene activation, movement of cells, embryonic
  induction are the reasons for organogenesis. DNA
  is same in each cell but different genes are
  active, so they differentiate into different
  cells and organs.

Ectoderm Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Skin ectoderm Neural ectoderm muscle digestion
skin brain blood Pancreas
Nail, hair Spinal cord skeleton Liver
Nerves, sense organs urinary Lung
reproductive Throid
mucosa, bladder
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http//www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html

• Development of a human embryo

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Protection and feeding of embryo

• Placenta develops after the implantation of the
  embryo. The blood vessels of mother and child are
  very close to each other. Embryo feeds from the
  maternal blood. Umblical cord has 2 arteries and
  1 vein. Placenta also functions as an endocrine
  organ, secretes estrogen and progesteron.

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Birth

• http//www.med.upenn.edu/meded/public/berp/overvie
  w.mov
• http//www.msnbc.com/modules/fetal_stages/FETUS.sw
  f

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Multiple birth

• There are two common types of multiple births,
  fraternal (dizygotic) and identical
  (monozygotic).
• Identical siblings arise where one egg is
  fertilized and the resulting zygote splits into
  more than one embryo. Identical siblings
  therefore have the same genetic material.
• Fraternal siblings result from the fertilisation
  and implantation of more than one egg.

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Yandaki semada omurgali bir canli türüne ait bazi
hücreler numaralandirilmistir. Buna göre semada
numaralandirilmis hücrelerle ilgili olarak hangi
ifade dogru degildir?

1. I ve II hücreler farkli genetik yapidadir.
2. III ve IV hücreler mayoz ile olusmustur
3. I ve II hücrelerindeki genlerin tümü V hücreye
   aktarilir
4. V. hücre mitoz geçirir
5. V hücredeki homolog kromozomlarin yarisi III,
   yarisi IV den gelmistir.

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Asagidaki olaylardan hangisi sonucunda olusan
hücre ana hücreden farklidir?

1. Kayisi bitkisinde makrospordan olusan megaspor
   hücresi
2. Kertenkelenin I. Oositinden olusan II. Oosit
   hücresi
3. Papatyada generatif çekirdekten olusan sperm
   çekirdekleri
4. Egrelti otunun gametofitinden olusan yumurta
   hücresi
5. Insan zigotundan olusan 2 blastomer hücresi

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Asagida verilenlerden hangisi çevresel degismenin
etkisi ile olusan modifikasyona örnektir?

1. Bazi deniz canlilarinin korunmak amaci ile deniz
   kumunun renginde olmasi
2. Göçmen kuslarin kisi sicak bölgelerde geçirmesi
3. Paramesyumun bölünerek çogalmasi sonucu olusan
   hücrelerin farkli büyüklükte olmasi
4. Kokarcanin düsmanina karsi koku salgilamasi
5. Hayvan türlerinin uygun mevsimlerde yavrulamasi

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Tüp bebek

• http//www.abc.net.au/science/lcs/ivf.htm
• http//biotech-adventure.okstate.edu/low/teacher/b
  asics

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