AP Language

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AP Language Composition

• Unlocking the Rhetorical Devices

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Balance
Parallelism Chiasmus Antithesis
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Parallelism-- is the repetition of a grammatical
structure. The effect of parallelism is usually
one of balance arrangement achieved through
repetition of the same syntactic form.
Ex To think carefully and to write precisely are
interrelated goals.
Vs. To think carefully and precise
writing are interrelated goals.
By matching the cadence, the form, or the
subjects, youll be able to make your essay
easier to read and digest and your speeches
easier to listen to.
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Chiasmus

• Figure of speecha pattern in which the second
  part is balanced against the first but with the
  parts reversed. This may involve a repetition of
  the same words.
• Ex Pleasures a sin, and sometimes sins a
  pleasure. Bryon

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Parallelism vs. Chiasmus
verb
adverb
verb
adverb

• Parallelism The code breakers worked constantly
  but succeeded rarely.

verb
verb
adverb
adverb
Chiasmus The code breakers worked constantly but
rarely succeeded.
Parallelism What is learned unwillingly is
forgotten gladly. Chiasmus What is learned
unwillingly is gladly forgotten.
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Antithesiscontrasting two ideas by placing them
next to each other
By contrasting legality and morality, wisdom and
learning, or success and happiness, you make your
reader think about the subtle shades of
difference between concepts.

• Ex Thats one small step for man, one giant
  leap for mankind. Neil Armstrong
• We live within our limits, for we are men, not
  gods.

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Emphasis 1
Climax Asyndeton Polysyndeton Expletive
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Climaxis the presentation of ideas of increasing
importance.

• Random Order When the bucket fell off the
  ladder, the paint splashed onto the small rug,
  the drop cloth, the Rembrandt painting, and the
  sofa.

Climactic Order When the bucket fell off the
ladder, the paint splashed onto the drop cloth,
the small rug, the sofa, and the Rembrandt
painting.
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Asyndeton (uh SIN duh tahn) consists of omitting
conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses
in a list.

• Ex When he returned, he received medals, honors,
  riches, titles, fame.
• Conj He was a winner and a hero.
• Asyndeton He was a winner, a hero.

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Polysyndeton (pol e SIN duh than) is the use of
a conjunction between each word, phrase, or
clause and is thus structurally the opposite of
asyndeton. The general feel of polysyndeton
is one of an increasing urgency and power, with
an almost hypnotic rhythm forming quite quickly.
Ex I slithered under the sheets, and under the
blankets, and under the top quilt to evade the
monsters. The commas draw out the action and
make escaping more suspenseful.
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Expletivea word or short phrase, often
interrupting a sentence, used to lend emphasis to
the words
Without expletive The lake was not drained
before April. With expletive The lake was not,
in fact, drained before April.
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Emphasis II The most emphatic part of a
sentence is at the end, while the second most
emphatic part is at the beginning. How do you
want to leave your readers?

• Irony
• Understatement
• Litotes
• Hyperbole

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Ironyinvolves a statement whose hidden meaning
is different from its surface or apparent
meaning.

• Ex When the tow truck driver pulled up, he saw
  the girl sitting in the rain on the spare tire,
  her prom dress ripped, grease on her face, mud on
  her shoes. As he stepped out of the truck, she
  asked him, Does this mean my fun is over?

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Understatement

• The opposite of exaggeration. It deliberately
  expresses an idea as less important than it
  actually is.

I know my actions were a little inappropriate,
stated Tiger Woods.
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Litotes

• A form of understatement, created by denying the
  opposite of the idea in mind.

Without litotes Those who examine themselves
will gain knowledge of their failings. With
litotes Those who examine themselves will not
remain ignorant of their failings.
Many writers have created litotes by using a non
un- construction Instead of saying, We were
willing, they would write, We were not
unwilling.
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Hyperbole

• A figure of speech, emphasized by exaggeration.
• Ex. There were millions of people at school.

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Figurative Language I

• Clarifying the unfamiliar by comparing it with
  the familiar is one of the key methods of
  teaching and learning.

Simile Analogy Metaphor
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Simile
It compares two very different things that have
at least one quality in common.
Ex After long exposure to the direct sun, the
leaves of the houseplant looked like pieces of
overcooked bacon.
The difference between subject and image should
be substantial!
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Analogy

• A word, thing, or idea chosen for the purpose of
  comparison.

Ex In order to solve a problem, you first have
to know what the problem really is, in the same
way that you cant untie a knot until youve
found the knot. -Aristotle
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Metaphor

• It identifies the subject with the image That
  is, instead of saying the subject is like the
  image, a metaphor asserts that the subject is the
  image in some sense.

Simile A good book is like a friend. Metaphor A
good book is a friend.
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Figurative Language II
Metonymy Synecdoche Personification
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Metonymy (muh THAN uh me)

• One entity is used to stand for another
  associated entity
• (The substitution of the name of a thing by the
  name of an attribute of it.)
• Ex the crown monarchy
• John Hancocksignature
• The big appleNYC
• A Mercedes rear-ended me
• (Ex The word me stands for the car that the
  speaker was driving.)

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Synecdoche (sin EK duh Ke) (a kind of metonymy)

• A part is used to describe the whole

Ex If I had some wheels, Id put on my threads
and ask for Janes hand. Wheelsautomobile/motor
cycle Threadsclothes Handpart-for-whole
substitution for Jane
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Personification

• Human attributes to animals, objects, or ideas.

Ex This coffee is strong enough to get up and
walk away. The ship began to creak and protest
as it struggled against the rising sea.
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Figurative Language III
Allusion Eponym Apostrophe
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Allusion
A short, informal reference to a famous person or
event. The allusion often functions as a brief
analogy or example to highlight a point being
made.
Ex Plan ahead It wasnt raining when Noah built
the Ark. --Richard Cushing It was like Romeo
and Juliet, only it ended in tragedy. (Milhouse
from the Simpsons implying the effects from his
first love)
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Eponym (EP uh nim)

• Is a specific type of allusion, substituting the
  name of a person famous for some attribute in
  place of the attribute itself. The person can be
  a historical, mythological, literary, or Biblical
  figure.

Ex This lid is stuck so tight I need a Hercules
to open it. Is he smart? Why, the man is an
Einstein. Is he creative?
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Apostrophe (uh POS truh fe)

• A direct address to someone, whether present or
  absent, and whether real, imaginary, or
  personified.
• Its most common purpose is to permit the writer
  to turn away from the subject under discussion
  for a moment and give expression to built-up
  emotion.

Ex O books who alone are liberal and free, who
give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all
who serve you faithfully! Richard de Bury
After this last piece of unexpected news, the
stock collapsed completely, ending its fall from
84 a share a year earlier to less than a dollar
now. You poor shareholders! If only you had
known about those secret partnerships! How much
wiser you could have been!
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Syntax I

• The term syntax refers to the way words and
  phrases are put together to form sentences.

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Zeugma (ZOOG muh)

• Linking together two or more words, phrases, or
  clauses by another word that is stated in one
  place and only implied in the rest of the
  sentence.

Ex Jane and Tom jogged along the trail together.
(One verb links two subjects.) She grabbed
her purse from the alcove, her gloves from the
table near the door, and her car keys from the
punchbowl. (The verb grabbed is implied in front
of her gloves and her car keys.)
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Diazeugma (di uh ZOOG muh)

• Consists of a single subject linking multiple
  verbs or verb phrases.
• Ex The book reveals the extent of
  counterintelligence operations, discusses the
  options for improving security, and argues for an
  increase in human intelligence measures.
• (The word book links the verb phrases beginning
  with reveals, discusses, and argues.)

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Restatement I

• Anaphora
• Epistrophe
• Symploce

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Anaphora

• Rhetorical figure of repetition in which the same
  word or phrase is repeated (found often in prose
  and verse).

Ex Youre beautiful, youre beautiful, youre
beautiful, its true. --J. Blunt Your body is
a wonderland. John Mayer
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Epistrophe

• The same word or phrase is repeated at the end of
  successive clauses, sentences, or lines.
• Whitmans Song of Myself
• The moth and the fish-eggs are in their place.
• The bright suns I see and the dark suns I cannot
  see are in their place,
• The palpable is in its place and the impalpable
• is in its place.

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Symploce (SIM plo ke)

• Combines anaphora and epistrophe by repeating
  words at both the beginning and the ending of
  phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Ex Whenever Chef Robaire cooked, his soup du
jour began with chicken broth and garlic, his
soup a la Chef included vegetables and garlic,
and his soup Forentine was made with onions,
cheese, and garlic. Soup (repeated)
Garlic (repeated)
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Restatement II

• Anadiplosis
• Conduplicatio

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Anadiplosis (an uh di PLO sis)

• Formed by the repetition of the last word or
  words of a sentence or clause at or very near the
  beginning of the next clause.

Ex The treatment plant has a record of uncommon
reliability, a reliability envied by every other
water treatment facility on the coast.
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Conduplicatio (con doo plih KAHT e o)

• Takes an important word from anywhere in one
  sentence and repeats it at the beginning of the
  next sentence.
• Ex Working adults form the largest single group
  of customers for on-line courses in the United
  States. On-line courses allow them to schedule
  academic assignments around full-time jobs and
  family responsibilities.

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Sound

• Alliteration
• Onomatopoeia
• Assonance
• Consonance

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Alliteration

• A sequence of repeated consonantal sounds in a
  stretch of language
• Without Alliteration Jonathan was the child of
  mature parents, who were calm and relaxed.
• With Alliteration Jonathan was the product of a
  mature marriage, whose partners were calm and
  relaxed.

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Onomatopoeia

• Words which sound like the noise they describe.
• Ex Swish, cuckoo, smack, plonk, etc.

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Assonance (As uh nuns)

• Repeating vowel sounds in the stressed syllables
  of successive words or words relatively close to
  each other.
• Ex A city that is set on a hill cannot be
  hid.Matthew 514b
• To get within sight of the lava, the geologists
  took a high-temperature hike.

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Consonance (KON suh nuns)

• Repeating the same consonant sound at the end of
  stressed syllables (or short words) with
  different vowels before the consonants.
• Ex Without consonance He was so thirsty that
  he tried to tear the lid from the top.
• With consonance He was so thirsty that he tried
  to rip the cap from the top.

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Drama

• Rhetorical Question
• Aporia

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Rhetorical Question

• The expected answer is implied by the question
  itself, and is often just a yes or no.
• Ex So, then, do we want to continue a business
  model that guarantees we will lose more money
  next year than this year and more money than ever
  each coming year?

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Aporia (uh POR e uh)

• Expresses doubt about a fact, idea, or
  conclusion. The doubt may be real or pretended.
  
• Ex I cannot decide whether I approve of dress
  codes for middle-school children Dress codes
  prevent gang clothing and conspicuous
  consumption, but they also produce a gray
  uniformity that suppresses personality and
  individual taste.

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Apophasis (uh POF uh sis)

• Brings up a subject by pretending not to bring it
  up. Its legitimate use is to call attention to
  something briefly, mentioning the existence of an
  idea without going into it.
• Ex I will not mention Houdinis books on magic,
  nor the tricks he invented, nor his well-known
  escapes, because I want to focus on the work he
  did exposing swindlers and cheats.

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Anacoluthon (an uh kuh LOO thun)

• A sentence whose two pieces do not fit together
  grammatically.
• Ex Suddenly we heard an explosion from the
  direction of the hut. I turned to see the
  windows blowing out and the roof coming off. I
  began towe were all knocked down.

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Word Play

• Oxymoron
• Pun
• Anthimeria

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Oxymoron

• A condensed paradox, usually reduced to two
  words. (Paradox an apparent contradiction)
• Ex Your dog whimpers and scratches to be picked
  up, but when I pick him up, he turns his head
  away as if he doesnt care that hes being held.
  Its clearly a case of clinging aloofness.

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Pun

• It plays with multiple meanings of a word or
  words. It is considered the lowest form of
  humor, but historically puns were considered
  witty and elegant because they were often well
  done.
• Ex Tell me, whats the scoop on cat litter?
• I cant believe you ducked up like that!

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Anthimeria (an thi MER e uh)

• Uses one part of speech as if it were another.
• Ex I can keyboard that article this afternoon.
• Friends who Internet together, stay together!

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Connotation/Denotation

• Connotation-emotional response evoked by a word
• Ex. Kittensoft, warm, cuddly
• Denotation-literal meaning

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Epithet (EP uh thet)

• An adjective, or adjectival phrase, that
  describes a key characteristic of the noun.
• (The characteristic poetic diction of the 18th
  century was replete with epithets.)
• Ex Brightening dawn, smirking billboards, joyous
  firefly, sleeping night

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Prozeugma (pro ZOOG muh)

• The linking word is presented once and then
  omitted from the subsequent sets of words or
  phrases linked together.
• Ex The freshman excelled in calculus the
  sophomore, in music the senior, in drama.

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Mesozeugma (mez uh ZOOG muh)

• The linking word (often a verb) comes in the
  middle of the sentence.
• Ex A center speaker is included, and a subwoofer.

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Hypozeugma (hi po ZOOG muh)

• The linking word follows the words it links
  together.
• (Commonly done with Periodic Sentences)
• Ex Monkeys, giraffes, elephants, and even lions
  had escaped from the zoo after the earthquake.

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Syllepsis (si LEP sis)

• The terms are linked in different senses or
  meanings of the linking word.
• Ex She was unwilling to drive to that party
  because she was afraid to damage her car or her
  reputation.

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Cumulative Sentences

• Presents the main idea first and then adds
  modification, detail, and qualification
  afterwards.
• Ex The joint leaked after the third pressure
  test at low temperature and high vibration.

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Periodic Sentence

• It presents modification first or in some other
  way holds off the completion of the main idea
  until the very end.

Ex When the students knew they were being
observed, they scored less well on the test.
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Transition

• One of the keys to good writing is the ability to
  take your reader with you as you move along in
  your discussion. Transitions allow you to signal
  clearly when you are changing directions.

Metabasis Procatalepsis Hypophora
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Metabasis (muh TAB uh sis)
It is a device used to sum up a body of work that
has come before, so that you can move on to a new
point.

• Ex I have discussed various reasons that show
  why we need to vote for a new president of this
  company our present leader has run the
  organization for twelve years, she has not had
  any profitable ideas in years, her salary has
  doubl3ed since 2005, the companys stocks has not
  moved, and her daughter has recently been hired
  as a consultant. But last week, the final
  incident occurred that has led me to recommend
  that she be replaced.

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Procatalepsis (pro kat uh LEP sis)

• Anticipates an objection that might be raised by
  a reader and responds to it, thus permitting an
  argument to continue moving forward while taking
  into account opposing points.

Ex It is usually argued at this point that if
the government gets out of the mail delivery
business, small towns like One Tree will not have
any mail service. The answer to this can be found
in the history of the Pony Express
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Hypophora (hi POF or uh)

• It involves asking one or more questions and then
  proceeding to answer them, usually at some
  length.

Ex Why should you vote in the next election?
Your future may depend on who is elected.
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Clarity

• Writing so that your reader has an accurate
  understanding of your ideasat the heart of good
  writing.
• Distinctio
• Exemplum
• Amplification
• Metanoia

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Amplification

• Consists of restating a word or idea and adding
  more detail. This device allows a writer to call
  attention to an expression that may otherwise be
  passed over.

Ex The subway car came to a halt with a jolt a
wrenching, neck-snapping jolt.
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Distinctio (dis TINK te o)

• The presentation of a specific meaning for a word
  in order to prevent ambiguity or confusion.

Ex Ambiguous It is impossible to make methanol
for twenty-five cents a gallon. Clarified with
distinctio To make methanol for twenty-five
cents a gallon is impossible by impossible I
mean currently beyond our technological
capabilities.
The clarification assures that your readers know
what you mean when you use the word.
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Exemplum (eg ZEM plum)

• Provides a specific example.

Ex Snow cones flavors, such as bubble gum and
mango, are often named after candy or fruit.
The conifers (evergreens like pine and cypress
trees) produce seeds in hard, cone-shaped
structures.
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Metanoia (met uh NOI uh)

• Qualifies a statement or part of a statement by
  rejecting it or calling it back and expressing it
  in a better, milder, or stronger way.

Ex Most bottled water companies try to capture
the mountain spring water taste or rather, they
do not so much capture it as manufacture it by
adding minerals and ozone.
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Syntax II
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Hyperbaton (hi PUR buh tahn)

• Refers to any departure from normal word order.

Ex Disturb me not! (Do not disturb me!) Books
they have demanded and books they will get. (They
have demanded books.)
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Anastrophe (uh NAS tro fe)

• Involves the reversal or transposition of words.
  

Ex Normal Word Order His was a sad
countenance. Anastrophe His was a countenance
sad.
Welcome to our home comfortable. She displayed
an air of confidence unusual.
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Appositive

• A noun that redescribes another noun standing
  next to it.

Ex Mrs. Wilkins, the manager, told me about the
plans for expansion.
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Parenthesis

• A word, phrase, or entire sentence inserted as an
  aside into the middle of another sentence.
• Ex But the new calculationsand here we see the
  value of relying on up-to-date informationshowed
  that man-powered flight was possible with this
  design.

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Epanelepsis (ep an uh LEP sis)

• Repeats the beginning word or words of a clause
  or sentence at the end.
• Ex Water alone dug this giant canyon yes, just
  ordinary water.
• Our eyes saw it, but we could not believe our
  eyes.

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Restatement III

• Diacope
• Epizeuxis
• Antimetabole
• Scesis Onomaton

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Diacope (di AK uh pe)

• The repetition of a word or phrase after an
  intervening word or phrase.
• Ex They dynamited the statue, those villains
  they dynamited the statue.
• The stock market didnt fallwill you believe it?
  --the stock market didnt fall.

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Epizeuxis (ep i ZOOK sis)

• The repetition of one word or short phrase. The
  most common and most natural effect is produced
  by three occurrences of the word or phrase, while
  two can be effective as well.
• Ex The best way to describe this AP Language
  students is cool, cool, cool!

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Antimetabole (an te muh TAB uh le)

• Reverses the order of repeated words or phrases
  to call attention to the final formulation,
  present alternatives, or show contrast.
• Ex All play and no work can be as stressful as
  all work and no play.
• Sarahs job is to find a location suitable for
  the wedding, while Alisons job is to design a
  wedding suitable for the location.

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Scesis Onomaton (SKE sis uh NO muh tahn)

• Emphasizes an idea by expressing it in a string
  of generally synonymous phrases or statements.
• Ex Wendy lay there, motionless in a peaceful
  slumber, very still in the arms of sleep.
• The fog rolled in so thick that we had no
  visibility we were completely blinded we just
  could not see anything.

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Apophasis (uh POF uh sis)

• Brings up a subject by pretending not to bring it
  up. Its legitimate use is to call attention to
  something briefly, mentioning the existence of an
  idea without going into it.
• Ex I will not mention Houdinis books on magic,
  nor the tricks he invented, nor his well-known
  escapes, because I want to focus on the work he
  did exposing swindlers and cheats.

82
Anacoluthon (an uh kuh LOO thun)

• A sentence whose two pieces do not fit together
  grammatically.
• Ex Suddenly we heard an explosion from the
  direction of the hut. I turned to see the
  windows blowing out and the roof coming off. I
  began towe were all knocked down.

83
Word Play

• Oxymoron
• Pun
• Anthimeria

84
Oxymoron

• A condensed paradox, usually reduced to two
  words. (Paradox an apparent contradiction)
• Ex Your dog whimpers and scratches to be picked
  up, but when I pick him up, he turns his head
  away as if he doesnt care that hes being held.
  Its clearly a case of clinging aloofness.

85
Pun

• It plays with multiple meanings of a word or
  words. It is considered the lowest form of
  humor, but historically puns were considered
  witty and elegant because they were often well
  done.
• Ex Tell me, whats the scoop on cat litter?
• I cant believe you ducked up like that!

86
Anthimeria (an thi MER e uh)

• Uses one part of speech as if it were another.
• Ex I can keyboard that article this afternoon.
• Friends who Internet together, stay together!

87
Connotation/Denotation

• Connotation-emotional response evoked by a word
• Ex. Kittensoft, warm, cuddly
• Denotation-literal meaning

88
Concrete Language

• Concrete- nouns, verbs, and adjectives that help
  you imagine specific sensations or form mental
  pictures.
• Ex yellow mustard

89
Abstract Language

• Language that appeals more to the mind than to
  the senses.
• Ex
• Color is abstract, a category name that covers
  every specific color there is. However, yellow
  mustard is concrete.
• Ex courage, worthlessness, etc.

90
Allegory

• A work that functions on a symbolic level.
  Example The Lord of the Flies is an allegory of
  society.

91
Anecdote

• A story or brief episode told by the writer or a
  character to illustrate a point.

92
Cacophony

• Harsh and discordant sounds in a line or passage
  in a literary work.

93
Didactic

• Writing whose purpose is to instruct or to teach.
  A didactic work is usually formal and focuses on
  moral and ethical concerns.

94
Epigraph

• The use of a quotation at the beginning of a work
  that hints at its theme. Hemingway begins The
  Sun Also Rises with two epigraphs. Example You
  are all a lost generation by Gertrude Stein

95
Euphemism

• A more acceptable and usually more pleasant way
  of saying something that might be inappropriate
  or uncomfortable. Example He went to his final
  reward.

96
Euphony

• The pleasant, mellifluous presentation of sounds
  in a literary work.

97
Aphorism

• A terse (short, abrupt) statement of known
  authorship, which expresses a general truth or a
  moral principle.

98
Parody

• A comic imitation of a work that ridicules the
  original (mocking or humorous). The Simpsons
  Show is a parody of _____________.

99
Pedantic
100
Stream of Consciousness

• Narrative that presents the private thoughts of a
  character without commentary or interpretation by
  the author.

101
Sarcasm

• A comic technique that ridicules through caustic
  language.

102
Satire

• A mode of writing based on ridicule, that
  criticizes the foibles and follies of society
  without necessarily offering a solution.

103
Synaesthesia

• A blending or confusion of different kinds of
  sense-impression, in which one type of sensation
  is referred to in terms more appropriate to
  another.
• Ex
• Sounds in terms of coloryellow cocktail music
• Sounds in terms of taste how sweet the sound
• Color in terms of sound loud shirt
• Color in terms of temp. cool green
• Sound as smooth
• Color as warm loud

104
Motif

• A simple element that serves as a basis for
  expanded narrative in literature, recurrent
  images, words, objects, phrases, or actions that
  unify a work.

105
Denouement

• The clearing up or untying of the complications
  of the plot in a play or story usually a final
  scene or chapter in which mysteries, confusions,
  and doubtful destinies are clarified.
• Ex the final scene in the Beauty The Beast

106
Anticlimax

• A sudden drop from the dignified or important
  thought of expression to the commonplace or
  trivial, often for humorous effect.

107
Inverted Syntax

• Reversing the normal word order of a sentence
• Ex Star Wars, Yoda speaks in inverted syntax.
• Robert Frost, Whose woods these are I think I
  know.

108
Argument Terms

• Ad Hominem-an attack on the person rather than on
  the opponents ideas

109
Inductive Reasoning

• Flowing from the specific to the general in an
  argument

110
Deductive Reasoning

• Flowing from the general to the particular in an
  argument

111
Logical Fallacy

• A mistake in reasoning

112
Pathos

• An appeal to the emotions that can be used to
  persuade.

113
Logos

• An appeal to the facts in order to persuade.

114
Ethos

• An appeal to the ethical senses in order to
  persuade.

115
Syllogism

• The format of a formal argument that consists of
  a major premise, minor premise, and a conclusion.

116
Non sequitur

• Stating a conclusion that doesnt follow from the
  first premise.

117
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

• Assuming that because B follows A, B was caused
  by A.
• Example Because I wore my red polo shirt, I won
  the U.S. Open.