Lecture Outline

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Lecture Outline

• Extra Credit experiment
• Stereotypes defined
• Diagnostic ratio revisited
• Origins of stereotypes
• Models of stereotype change/maintenance
• Prejudice defined

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Ashmore Del Boca (1981) A stereotypes
is... A set of beliefs about the personal
attributes of a group of people
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Ashmore Del Boca (1981)
Limitation Many attributes are perceived as
typical of a group and yet are not part of
peoples stereotypes
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Stereotypes include attributes that are perceived
as TYPICAL and DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GROUPS
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Diagnostic Ratio

• DR of group (with attribute)
• of reference (with attribute)

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Diagnostic Ratio

• When DR 1 (or close to 1), attribute does not
  distinguish between groups
• attribute not part of stereotype

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Diagnostic Ratio

• When DR substantially gt than 1
• attribute distinguishes between groups
• attribute is stereotypic of group

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Diagnostic Ratio

• When DR substantially lt than 1
• attribute distinguishes between groups
• attribute is counterstereotypic of group

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McCauley Stitt (1978)

• Purpose
• 1. Show utility of DR
• 2. Measure (in)accuracy of stereotype about
  African Americans

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McCauley Stitt (1978)

• Sampled five groups
• Created DRs based on perceptions of African
  Americans and Americans
• Created criterion DRs based on census information

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Results McCauley Stitt (1978)

• Attribute Criteria HS College Union
  Choir SW
• HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67)
  (.68) (.60)
• Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10)
  (1.90) (2.30)
• Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80)
  (2.60) (2.30)
• Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00)
  1.50 2.30
• Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60)
  (1.80) 1.40
• Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60
  (1.30) (1.30)
• Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70)
  (1.50) (1.70)
• (Green) DRs different from 1 (p lt .05) n 30
• Black DRs not different from 1 (p gt .05) n 5
• Underlined DRs different from criteria (p lt
  .05) n 16

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Results McCauley Stitt (1978)

• Attribute Criteria HS College Union
  Choir SW
• HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67)
  (.68) (.60)
• Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10)
  (1.90) (2.30)
• Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80)
  (2.60) (2.30)
• Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00)
  1.50 2.30
• Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60)
  (1.80) 1.40
• Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60
  (1.30) (1.30)
• Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70)
  (1.50) (1.70)

Most DRs different from one (green) People
held stereotype of African Americans
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Results McCauley Stitt (1978)

• Attribute Criteria HS College Union
  Choir SW
• HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67)
  (.68) (.60)
• Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10)
  (1.90) (2.30)
• Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80)
  (2.60) (2.30)
• Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00)
  1.50 2.30
• Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60)
  (1.80) 1.40
• Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60
  (1.30) (1.30)
• Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70)
  (1.50) (1.70)

Some DRs different from criteria underlined.
Other DRs not different from criteria not
underlined Peoples stereotypes were both
inaccurate underlined and accurate not
underlined
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Results McCauley Stitt (1978)

• Attribute Criteria HS College Union
  Choir SW
• HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67)
  (.68) (.60)
• Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10)
  (1.90) (2.30)
• Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80)
  (2.60) (2.30)
• Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00)
  1.50 2.30
• Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60)
  (1.80) 1.40
• Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60
  (1.30) (1.30)
• Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70)
  (1.50) (1.70)

When DRs indicated inaccurate stereotype
underlined, difference was smaller than
criteria Peoples stereotypes underestimated
real differences. They did not exaggerate real
differences
79
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McCauley Stitt (1978) Summary

• People endorsed a stereotype of AA
• most DRs different than 1
• AA stereotype was accurate inaccurate
• some DRs different from criteria (inaccurate)
• other DRs not different from criteria (accurate)
• AA stereotype underestimated real difference
• when DR different from criteria, it was smaller

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Origin of StereotypesWhere do they come from?

• Socio-cultural perspective
• Kernel of Truth hypothesis
• Illusory correlations

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Socio-Cultural Perspective

• Premise Individuals are socialized into a
  particular culture
• (e.g., media or significant others)

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Socio-Cultural Perspective

• 1. People are born into a culture
• 2. People are rewarded/punished for their
• beliefs, values, behaviors
• 3. People act in accord with norms
• 4. People internalize norms
• 5. Internalization perpetuates the norms

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Socio-Cultural Perspective

• Two versions of socio-cultural view
• Structuralist-Functionalist
• Conflict theory

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Structuralist-Functionalist Version

• A single culture accepted throughout a society
• i.e., individuals in a society are similar
• in their beliefs, values and behaviors

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Structuralist-Functionalist Version

• Function of stereotypes
• stereotypes communicate expected behavior
• stereotypes communicate how different people
  should be treated

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Structuralist-Functionalist Version

• More evident in more homogeneous
• and collectivist societies

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Conflict Theory Version

• Multiple subcultures within society
• People accept norms of their subculture

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Conflict Theory Version

• People within a subculture are similar in their
  beliefs, values, behaviors
• People in different subcultures are different in
  their beliefs, values, behaviors
• The more different two subcultures, the greater
  the conflict in their beliefs, values, behaviors

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Conflict Theory Version

• Function of stereotypes
• stereotypes justify prejudice
• incompetence justifies lower pay
• laziness justifies poverty

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Conflict Theory Version
More evident in more heterogeneous societies
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

• Premise Stereotypes are exaggerations that exist
  in some measure in a group

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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

• 1. The larger a real difference between groups,
  the more likely the attribute will be in the
  stereotype
• Example Circumscribing and non-circumscribing
  tribes

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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

• 2. Stereotypes become more accurate as contact
  between groups increases
• Example women/men v.s. African Americans/Whites

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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

• 3. Behaviors punished in one group, but not in
  another, tend to be in a stereotype
• Example nudity and bathroom practices

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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

• 4. Similar behaviors that groups perform in
  different situations tend to be in stereotypes,
  but connote different valences.
• Example...

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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

• We are loyal.
• We are brave and progressive.
• We are thrifty.

• They are clannish.
• They are aggressive and expansionistic.
• They are cheap.

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Kernel of Truth

• Cautionary Statements
• Perceived differences are not veridical
• Perceived differences are exaggerated
• Perceived differences reflect social factors, not
  genetic differences

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Illusory Correlations

• Definition People overestimate how strongly two
  things are related
• (e.g., arthritis pain and changes in the weather)

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• Illusory correlations stereotype formation
• People associate a group with an attribute
  (African Americans crime)
• Cognitive biases corroborate the perceived
  association
• confirmation biases in hypothesis testing
• remember consistent information better

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Illusory Correlation

• People most susceptible to illusory correlations
  when
• group is relatively small
• attribute is rare in population

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Illusory CorrelationExample

• African Americans are a minority in the US.
  Whites are the majority
• Being a media superstar is rare
• Illusory correlation likely
• More AA (small group) superstars (rare event)
  than White (large group) superstars (rare event)

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Illusory Correlation

• Negative behavior more rare than positive
  behavior
• Implication
• Negative behavior by minority more memorable and
  salient than same behavior by majority
• Negative behavior becomes part of stereotype of
  minority

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Stereotype Change

• Consensual stereotypes change over time, across
  individuals.
• Very little known about stereotype change over
  time, within individuals (see Weber Crocker,
  1983, for an exception)

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Models of Stereotype Change

• Bookkeeping Model
• Conversion Model
• Subtyping Model
• Focus on stereotype-inconsistent information

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Bookkeeping Model

• Stereotype change is incremental
• Each instance of inconsistent information
  modifies the stereotype
• Single instance small change
• Accumulation large change

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Bookkeeping Model

• Implication
• Stereotype change will be similar regardless of
  whether inconsistent information is concentrated
  or dispersed. Amount (not dispersion) matters.

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Conversion Model

• Stereotype change is dramatic
• Stereotypes change in response to large and
  salient inconsistent info.
• Stereotypes remain unchanged by minor
  inconsistent information

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Conversion Model

• Implication
• Stereotype change will be greater when
  inconsistent information is concentrated v.s.
  dispersed

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Subtyping Model

• Stereotypes hierarchically structured
• Rare, inconsistent instances lead to creation of
  subtypes.
• Instances regarded as exceptions
• Stereotype protected from change
• Common, inconsistent instances result in
  stereotype change

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Subtyping Model

• Implication
• Stereotype change will be greater when
  inconsistent information is dispersed v.s.
  concentrated

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Weber Crocker (1983)

• Purpose
• Tested the three models of stereotype change

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Weber Crocker (1983)

• Procedure
• Given information about corporate lawyers
• Rated each lawyer on stereotypic traits

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Weber Crocker (1983)

• Manipulations
• Dispersion of Inconsistent info
• Dispersed across all members
• Concentrated in 1/3 of members
• Group size
• 6 members v.s. 30 members
• Amount of inconsistent info higher in larger group

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Weber Crocker (1983)

• Predictions
• Dispersion has no effect on stereotype change,
  but amount does (bookkeeping)
• Stereotype change greater when inconsistent info
  concentrated (conversion)
• Stereotype change greater when when inconsistent
  info dispersed (subtyping)

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Weber Crocker (1983)

• Operationalization of Stereotype Change
• More change lower stereotypic judgments
• Less change higher stereotypic judgments

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Weber Crocker (1983)Effect of Dispersion
Which stereotype change model does this result
support?
Subtyping Model
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Weber Crocker (1983)Effect of Group Size
Which stereotype change model does this result
support?
Bookkeeping Model
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Weber Crocker (1983)

• Supported subtyping model
• stereotype change gt dispersed
• Supported bookkeeping model
• stereotype change gt large group

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Stereotype Maintenance

• Subtyping Model
• Subtypes help to maintain stereotype
• Cognitive Biases
• Better memory for stereotype-consistent
  information
• Confirmation biases in hypothesis testing

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• Cognitive Biases
• Cognitive biases maintain stereotype by
  increasing confidence in the stereotypes accuracy

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Cohen (1981)

• 96 participants watched video of a librarian or
  waitress and her husband
• Some attributes fit stereotype of librarian or
  waitresses (see next slide for examples), others
  did not
• Recalled as many of the womans attributes as
  they could

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• Example of womans attributes
• Half fit stereotype of librarians
• wore glasses
• ate roast beef
• Half fit stereotype of waitresses
• affectionate with husband
• ate hamburger

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Cohen (1981)
Conclusion Better recall for stereotype-consisten
t information
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Confirmation Biases in Hypothesis Testing

• Definition Search for information that confirms
  ones expectations (stereotype)

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Snyder and colleagues

• Through series of studies showed that people
  engage in this bias
• Example...

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Snyder and colleagues

• Told participants they would interview another
  individual
• Told to figure out if other person was
  introverted or extroverted (initial hypothesis)
• Given suggested questions to ask
• 1/2 introverted 1/2 extroverted..

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Example questions

• Introverted
• What factors make it hard for you to really open
  up to people?
• Extroverted
• What kind of situations do you seek out if you
  want to meet new people?

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Snyder Colleagues

• Results
• Participants preferentially chose to ask
  questions that would confirm their initial
  hypothesis

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Prejudice

• Definition of Prejudice
• A positive or negative attitude, judgment or
  feeling about a person that is generalized from
  attitudes or beliefs held about the group to
  which the person belongs.

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Prejudice

• Negative forms of prejudice studied more because
  has greatest potential to create social problems
• Cautionary statement preferential treatment
  (positive prejudice) can also cause problems

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Zanna (1994)

• Purpose
• Demonstrate that prejudice is made up of
  different components
• Correlated prejudice scores with three proposed
  components of prejudice

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Zanna (1994)

• Components of prejudice
• Stereotypic beliefs typical attributes
• Symbolic beliefs values, traditions, customs
• Emotions affective reactions (e.g., disgust)

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Zanna (1994)

• Procedure
• 1) Participants indicated their stereotypic
  beliefs, symbolic beliefs, and emotions about
  these social groups
• English Canadian (ingroup)
• French Canadian
• Native Indian
• Pakistani
• Homosexual

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Zanna (1994)

• Procedure continued
• 2) Participants rated how favorable each group
  was (i.e., prejudice)

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Zanna (1994)

• Results
• 1) On average, prejudice correlated positively
  with each component (all ps lt .05)
• 2) But, correlations varied by target group.

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Zanna (1994)Correlation between prejudice and
components of prejudice
Zanna (1994)Correlation between prejudice and
components of prejudice by group
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Result 1 weakest correlation b/t prejudice and
components for English Canadians overall
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Result 2 strongest correlation b/t prejudice and
components for French Canadians overall
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Result 3 prejudice correlated with stereotypic
beliefs most strongly for French Canadian and
Homosexual
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Result 4 prejudice correlated with symbolic
beliefs most strongly for French Canadian
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Result 5 prejudice correlated with emotion most
strongly for Pakistani
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Zanna (1994)

• Conclusions
• Prejudice consists of at least three components
• stereotypic beliefs
• symbolic beliefs
• emotion
• The components most central to prejudice varies
  across groups