OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

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OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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Overview of APObjectives

• Upon completion the student will be able to
• Define the terms anatomy and physiology
• Identify the major levels of organization in
  humans and other living organisms
• Explain the importance of homeostasis
• Describe how positive and negative feedback are
  involved in homeostatic regulation.
• Use anatomical terms to describe body regions,
  body sections, and relative positions.

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Overview of APObjectives

• Identify the major body cavities and their
  subdivisions.
• Distinguish between visceral and parietal
  portions of serous membranes

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Anatomy and Physiology

• All living organisms perform the same basic
• functions
• Responsiveness
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Movement
• Metabolism

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ANATOMYDefined

• Study of internal and external structure and the
  physical relationships between body parts.

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PHYSIOLOGYDefined

• Study of how living organisms perform their vital
  functions.

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MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY

• Two areas of microscopic anatomy
• Cytology (cells)
• Histology (tissues)

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MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY

• Also known as gross anatomy. Three areas of
  macroscopic anatomy
• Surface Anatomy
• Regional Anatomy
• Systemic Anatomy

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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

• Cell Physiology
• The study of the functions of living cells
• Special Physiology
• The study of specific organs
• System Physiology
• The study of specific organ systems
• Pathology
• The study of the effects of diseases on organ or
  system functions

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

• Chemical
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
• Organism

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HOMEOSTASIS

• Refers to the existence of a stable internal
  environment. Also referred to as the tendency of
  internal balance of the organ systems.

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HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION

• Refers to the adjustments in physiological
  systems that preserve homeostasis.
• Homeostatic regulation usually involves
• A receptor that is sensitive to a particular
  environmental change or stimulus
• A control center, or integration center, which
  receives and processes information from the
  receptor.

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HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION

• An effector which responds to commands from the
  control center and whose activity opposes or
  reinforces the stimulus

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HOMEOSTATIC REGULATIONNegative Feedback

• The essential feature of negative feedback is
  this
• Regardless of whether the stimulus rises or falls
  at the receptor, a variation outside normal
  limits triggers an automatic response that
  corrects the situation.
• Primary example is thermoregulation.
• Too hot peripheral vasodilation sweating
• Too cold peripheral vasoconstriction
  shivering.

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HOMEOSTATIC REGULATIONPositive Feedback

• In positive feedback, the initial stimulus
  produces a response that reinforces that
  stimulus.
• Positive feedback is improtant in accelerating
  processes that must proceed to completion
  rapidly.
• Example would be blood clotting.

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Clotting Accelerates
Positive Feedback Loop
Break in blood vessel wall causes bleeding
Damaged cells release chemicals
Clotting Begins
Additional Chemicals Released
Blood clot plugs break in vessel wall bleeding
stops
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SURFACE ANATOMYAnatomical Landmarks

• Anatomical Position
• With the hands at the sides with the palms facing
  forward, and the feet together.
• Supine
• Lying face up
• Prone
• Lying face down

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Directional Terms

• Anterior
• The front.
• Example The navel is on the anterior surface of
  the trunk.
• Ventral
• The belly side (equivalent to anterior when
  referring to the human body)

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Directional Terms

• Posterior
• The back behind
• Example The shoulder blade is located posterior
  to the rib cage
• Dorsal
• The back (equivalent to posterior when referring
  to the human body)

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Directional Terms

• Cranial or Cephalic
• The head
• Example The cranial, or cephalic, border of the
  pelvis is superior to the thigh.
• Superior
• Above at a higher level (in the human body,
  toward the head
• Example The nose is superior to the chin.

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Directional Terms

• Caudal
• The tail (coccyx in humans)
• Example The hips are caudal to the waist.
• Inferior
• Below at a lower level
• Example The knees are inferior to the hips.

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Directional Terms

• Medial
• Toward the bodys longitudinal axis
• Example The medial surfaces of the thighs may
  be in contact.
• Lateral
• Away from the bodys longitudinal axis
• Example The thigh articulates with the lateral
  surface of the pelvis.

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Directional Terms

• Proximal
• Toward an attached base, closer to the center of
  the body
• Example The thigh is proximal to the foot.
• Distal
• Away from an attached base, further from the
  center of the body
• Example The fingers are distal to the wrist

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Directional Terms

• Superficial
• At, near, or relatively close to the body surface
• Example The scalp is superficial to the skull.
• Deep
• Farther from the body surface
• Example The bone of the thigh is deep to the
  surrounding skeletal muscles.

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SECTIONAL ANATOMYPlanes and Sections

• Transverse Plane
• Frontal Plane
• Sagittal Plane

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BODY CAVITIESDorsal Cavities

• Cranial Cavity
• Spinal Cavity

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BODY CAVITIESVentral Cavities

• Thoracic Cavity
• Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Ventral cavities are divided by the diaphragm

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BODY CAVITIESVentral Cavities

• Abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities lined with
  serous membrane. The serous membranes have two
  divisions
• Visceral covers surfaces of internal organs
• Parietal forms outer wall of body cavity

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BODY CAVITIESVentral Cavities Serous Membranes

• Pericardial Cavity consists of pericardium
  (visceral and parietal layers)
• Pleural Cavities (2) pleura surrounds lungs.
  Mediastinum divides the cavities
• Peritoneal Cavity peritoneum surround abdominal
  cavity. Mesenteries support organs

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CELL STRUCTURE ANDFUNCTION
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Cell StructureObjectives

• Upon completion the student will be able to
• List the functions of the cell membrane and the
  structures that perform those functions.
• Describe the ways cells move materials across the
  cell membrane
• Describe the organelles of a typical cell and
  indicate their specific functions
• Explain the functions of the cell nucleus
• Summarize the process of protein synthesis

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Cell StructureObjectives

• Describe the process of mitosis and explain its
  significance
• Define differentiation and explain its importance

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CELL THEORY

• Cells are the basic structural units of all
  plants and animals.
• Cells are the smallest functioning units of life.
• Cells are produced only by the division of
  preexisting cells.
• Each cell maintains homeostasis.

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Cytology

• Defined as the study of the structure and
  function of cells.

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CELLULAR ANATOMY

• Extracellular Fluid
• Watery fluid around cells, also called
  interstitial fluid (something in between)
• Cytoplasm
• Cell contents
• Cell Membrane
• Also called the plasma membrane
• Separates cytoplasm from extracellular fluid
• Organelles
• Intracellular structures

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CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS

• Physical Isolation
• Physical barrier. Needed to preserve
  homeostasis.
• Regulation of exchange with the environment
• Controls the entry of ions and nutrients,
  elimination of wastes, and release of secretions.

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CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS

• Sensitivity to the environment
• Responsive to changes in extracellular fluid.
  Receptors on membrane recognize and respond to
  specific molecules.
• Structural support
• Connections between membranes and other materials
  provide stable structure.

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MEMBRANE STRUCTUREMembrane Lipids

• Made up of fatty acids/cholesterol molecules
  called phospholipids.
• The phospholipids in a cell membrane lie in two
  distinct layers. This layer is also known as
  phospholipid bilayer because of its make-up.

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MEMBRANE STRUCTUREMembrane Proteins

• Receptors
• Channels
• Carriers
• Enzymes
• Anchors/Identifiers

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MEMBRANE STRUCTUREMembrane Carbohydrates

• Important as cell lubricants and adhesives.
• Act as receptors for extracellular compounds.
• Are part of a recognition system that keeps the
  immune system from attacking its own tissues.

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MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

• Permeability of the cell membrance determines
  which substances enter or leave the cytoplasm.
• Impermeable Nothing can cross
• Freely permeable Any substance can cross
• Selectively permeable Free passage of some
  substances and restricting of others.

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MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

• Two types of transport across the cell membrane
• Passive Transport Examples
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Filtration
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport
• Requires that the cell expend energy, usually in
  the form of ATP.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion

• Defined as Net movement of molecules from an
  area of relatively high concentration to an area
  of relatively low concentration.
• The difference between the high and low
  concentrations represents a concentration
  gradient.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion

• Diffusion described as proceeding down a
  concentration gradient or downhill.
• An ion or molecule can independently diffuse
  across a cell membrane in one of two ways
• Move through a lipid portion
• Passing through a cell membrane channel

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion

• Primary factors determining whether a substance
  can diffuse across a cell membrane are its lipid
  solubility and it size relative to the diameter
  of the membrane channels.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion Lipid Solubility

• Alcohol, fatty acids and steroids can enter cells
  easily through the lipid membranes.
• This is also true of oxygen and carbon dioxide as
  both are lipid soluble.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion - Size

• Channel membranes are very small, a water
  molecule can enter or exit freely whereas glucose
  is too big to fit through the channel.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion - Osmosis

• Defined as The diffusion of water across a
  membrane.
• Whenever a concentration gradient exists, water
  molecules will diffuse rapidly across the cell
  membrane until the gradient is eliminated.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion - Osmosis

• Water molecules will tend to diffuse across a
  membrane toward the solution containing a higher
  solute concentration.
• WATER FOLLOWS SALT!!!!!!!!

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion - Osmosis

• Three Characteristics of osmosis are of primary
  importance
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules
  across a membrane
• Osmosis occurs across a selectively permeable
  membrane that is freely permeable to water but
  not to solutes

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion - Osmosis

1. In osmosis, water will flow across a membrane
   toward the solution that has the highest
   concentration of solutes

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion Osmotic Pressure

• Defined as An indication of the force of water
  movement into a solution as a result of solute
  concentration.
• In other words, if theres a lot of salt on one
  side of a membrane the osmotic pressure will be
  high and vice versa.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTDiffusion Hydrostatic Pressure

• Defined as Pressure exerted against a fluid.
• Sometimes used to balance osmotic pressure.

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SOLUTIONS

• Isotonic
• Hypotonic
• Hypertonic

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ISOTONIC

• Solution is one that will not cause a net
  movement of water into or out of the cell.
  Concentration is equal to your circulating blood
  volume.
• Example is normal saline which has a solute
  concentration of 0.9.

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HYPOTONIC

• When a cell is placed in this solution it will
  swell. This is because the solution is at a
  lower concentration than your circulation.
• This swelling could result in membrane rupture or
  lyse (breakdown).

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HYPERTONIC

• When a cell is placed in this solution it will
  shrink in size because the solution is at a
  concentration higher that the individuals
  circulation.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORTFiltration

• Water and small solute molecules are forced
  across a membrane because of a hydrostatic
  pressure gradient.
• Hydrostatic pressure is blood pressure.
• Filtration across specialized blood vessels in
  the kidneys is an essential step in the
  production of urine.

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CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT

• Involves the activity of membrane proteins that
  bind specific ions or organic substrates and move
  them across the cell membrane.
• They are selective in nature.
• Can be passive or active.

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CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT

• Carrier proteins transport one ion at a time, but
  some may deal with two simultaneously.
• Cotransport the carrier transports two
  substances in same direction.
• Countertransport one substance moves into the
  cell while the other moves out.

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CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT

• Two major forms include
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport

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FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Transporting molecules across a membrane by
  carrier proteins, once they have bound to a
  receptor site.
• Example is the transportation of glucose across
  the cell membrane.

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• High-energy bond in ATP provides the energy
  needed to move ions or molecules across the
  membrane.
• Forms
• Ion Pumps
• Exchange Pumps (Sodium/Potassium Pumps)

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ACTIVE TRANSPORTIon Pumps

• Ion pumps (carrier proteins) in all cells
  actively transport the cations sodium, potassium,
  calcium, and magnesium across cell membranes.
• In some cells other ions are transported.

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ACTIVE TRANSPORTSodium-Potassium Pumps

• If one kind of ion moves in one direction and the
  other moves in the opposite direction the carrier
  protein is called an exchange pump.
• A major function of these pumps is to maintain
  cell homeostasis.
• With sodium and potassium being the principal
  cations in body fluids, maintaining their balance
  is essential.

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ACTIVE TRANSPORTSodium-Potassium Pumps

• Homeostasis within the cell depends on
  maintaining sodium and potassium ion
  concentration gradients with the extracellular
  fluid.
• The sodium-potassium exchange pump maintains
  these gradients by ejecting sodium ions and
  recapturing lost potassium ions.

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ACTIVE TRANSPORTVesicular Transport

• Movement of materials through the formation of
  small membranous sacs (vesicles).
• Two major categories
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis

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ACTIVE TRANSPORTVesicular Transport - Endocytosis

• Is the packaging of extracellular materials in a
  vesicle at the cell surface for importation into
  the cell.
• Three Major Types
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis (large molecule
  transport)
• Pinocytosis (cell drinking)
• Phagocytosis (cell eating)

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ACTIVE TRANSPORTVesicular Transport - Exocytosis

• The functional reverse of endocytosis.
• A vesicle created inside the cell fuses with the
  cell membrane and discharges its contents into
  the extracellular environment.
• Examples Hormones, mucus, waste products

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CYTOPLASM

• General term for the material inside the cell
  from the cell membrane to the nucleus.
• Divided into
• Cytosol
• Organelles

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CYTOPLASMCytosol

• Is the intracellular fluid, which contains
  dissolved nutrients, ions, soluble and insoluble
  proteins and waste products.
• It differs in composition from the extracellular
  fluid that surrounds most of the cells in the
  body in the following ways
• Contains a high concentration of potassium ions,
  whereas extracellular fluid contains a high
  concentration of sodium ions.

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CYTOPLASMCytosol

• Contains a relatively high concentration of
  dissolved proteins, which give the cytosol a
  consistency that varies between that of thin
  maple syrup and almost-set gelatin.
• Contains relatively small quantities of
  carbohydrates and large reserves of amino acids
  and lipids.

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CYTOPLASMCytosol - Inclusions

• The cytosol may also contain stored nutrients
  (insoluble) known as inclusions.
• Include glycogen granules in muscle and liver
  cells and lipid droplets in fat cells.

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CYTOPLASMOrganells

• Structures that perform specific functions
  essential to normal cell structure, maintenance,
  and metabolism.
• Some organells are membrane enclosed that
  isolates the organelle from the cytosol so the
  organelle can manufacture or store secretions,
  enzymes, or toxins that might otherwise damage
  the cell.

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CYTOPLASMOrganells

• Membrane enclosed organells include
• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes

• Organells that are not surrounded by their own
  membrane include
• Cytoskeleton
• Microvilli
• Centrioles
• Cilia
• Flagella
• Ribosomes

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CYTOPLASMOrganells Cytoskeleton

• Internal protein framework of various threadlike
  filaments and hollow tubules that gives the
  cytoplasm strength and flexibility. Three most
  important cytoskeletal elements are
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules

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CYTOSKELETONMicrofilaments

• Thinnest strands, usually composed of the protein
  actin.
• Attach the cell membrane to the underlying
  cytoplasm by forming connections with proteins of
  the cell membrane.
• Interact with thicker filaments made of another
  protein, myosin.

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CYTOSKELETONIntermediate Filaments

• In between the size of microfilaments and thick
  filaments (myosin).
• Strengthen the cell and stabilize its position
  with respect to surrounding cells through
  specialized attachments to the cell membrane.

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CYTOSKELETONMicrotubules

• Found in all our cells, are hollow tubes built
  from the globular protein tubulin.
• Form the primary components of the cytoskeleton,
  giving the cell strength and rigidity, and
  anchoring the organells.

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CYTOPLASMOrganells - Microvilli

• Small, finger-shaped projection of the cell
  membrane supported by microfilaments.
• Common features of cells actively engaged in
  absorbing materials from the extracellular fluid,
  such as the cells of the digestive tract and
  kidneys.

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CYTOPLASMOrganells Centrioles

• Short cylindrical structure composed of
  microtubules.
• Create the spindle fibers that move DNA strands
  during cell division.
• Cells that do not divide, such as mature red
  blood cells and neurons of the brain, lack
  centrioles.

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CYTOPLASMOrganells Cillia

• Long finger-shaped extensions of the cell
  membrane.
• Their movements are coordinated so that their
  combined efforts move fluids or secretions across
  the cell surface.

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CYTOPLASMOrganells Flagella

• Resemble cilia but are much longer. Propel a
  cell through the surrounding fluid, rather than
  moving the fluid past a stationary cell.
• The sperm cell is the only human cell that has a
  flagellum.

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CYTOPLASM Organells Ribosomes

• Small organelles that manufacture proteins.
• Ribosomes are found in all cells.
• Two major types
• Free Ribosomes
• Fixed Ribosomes

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CYTOPLASM Organells Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Network of intracellular membranes that is
  connected to the membranous nuclear envelop
  surround the nucleus.
• Four Major Functions
• Synthesis Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
• Storage Synthesized molecules or materials
  absorbed from the cytosol without affecting other
  cellular operations
• Transport
• Detoxification Drugs and toxins neutralized by
  enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum

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CYTOPLASM Organells Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Two Distinct Types
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

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SER

• Functions
• Synthesis of the phospholipids and cholesterol
  needed for maintenance and growth of cell
  membrane
• Synthesis of steroid hormones, such as
  testosterone and estrogen
• Syntesis and storage of glycerides, especially
  triglycerides, in liver and fat cells
• Synthesis and storage of glycogen in skeletal
  muscle and liver cells

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RER

• Functions as a combination workshop and shipping
  depot.
• Ribosomes on the surface of the RER (why its
  called rough) release newly formed proteins
  into the RER.
• Some proteins function as enzymes (workshop)
• Some proteins form transport vesicles and deliver
  the proteins to the Golgi apparatus, where they
  are processed further (shipping).

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CYTOPLASM Organells Golgi Apparatus

• Consists of a set of five or six flattened
  membrane discs.
• Major Functions
• Synthesis and packaging of secretions, such as
  hormones and enzymes
• The renewal of the cell membrane
• Packaging of enzymes for use in cytosol

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CYTOPLASM Organells Golgi Apparatus

• Once proteins arrive from the RER, the Golgi
  Apparatus modifies these proteins and repackages
  them as vesicles.

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CYTOPLASM Organells Golgi Apparatus

• The Golgi Apparatus creates three classes of
  vesicles
• Lysosomes Contain digestive enzymes. Remain in
  the cytoplasm.
• Secretory vesicles Contains secretion that will
  be discharged from the cell. (Hormones)
• Membrane renewal vesicles Fuses with the
  surface of the cell to add new lipids and
  proteins to the cell membrane.

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Golgi ApparatusLYSOSOMES

• Vesicles filled with digestive enzymes.
• Perform cleanup and recycling functions within
  the cell.
• Also function in the defense against disease.
• Involved in process autolysis, known as suicide
  bags

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CYTOPLASM Organells Mitochondria

• Small organelles containing enzymes that regulate
  the reactions that provide energy for the cell.
• Key activities consume oxygen, the process of
  mitochondrial energy production is known as
  aerobic metabolism.

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CYTOPLASM Organells Nucleus

• The control center for cellular operations, DNA
  storage.
• Most cells have 1 nucleus.

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TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
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Tissue LevelObjectives

• Upon completion the student will be able to
• Discuss the types and functions of epithelial
  cells.
• Describe the relationship between form and
  function for each epithelial type
• Compare the structures and functions of the
  various types of connective tissues
• Explain how epithelial and connective tissues
  combine to form four different types of
  membranes, and specify the functions of each

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Tissue LevelObjectives

• Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the
  special structural features of each
• Discuss the basic structure and role of nervous
  tissue
• Explain how tissues respond to maintain
  homeostasis after an injury.
• Describe how aging affects the tissues of the
  body.

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TISSUES

• Four Primary Tissue Types
• Epithelial tissue
• Connective tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Neural tissue

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EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Consists of epithelia and glands.
• Epithelium is a layer of cells that forms a
  barrier with specific properties. Important
  characteristics include
• A free surface exposed to the environment
• Attachment to underlying connective tissue by a
  basement membrane
• The absence of blood vessels (avascular)

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EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Cells are bound closely together.
• Continual replacement or regeneration of
  epithelial cells that are damaged or lost at the
  exposed surface.
• Cover both external and internal body surfaces.
• Line internal passageways.
• Line internal cavities and passageways.

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EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Functions
• Providing physical protection
• Controlling permeability
• Providing sensations
• Producing specialized secretions

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EPITHELIAL TISSUESpecialized Secretions

• Exocrine
• Discharged to the surface of the skin.
• Endocrine
• Released into the surrounding tissues and blood.
  (hormones).

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EPITHELIAL TISSUEIntercellular Connections

• To be effective epithelial cells must remain
  together.
• Three forms of junctions
• Gap Junction
• Permit the free diffusion of ions and small
  molecules. Essential in muscle contractions.

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EPITHELIAL TISSUEIntercellular Connections

• Tight Junction
• Prevents the passage of water and solutes between
  cells. Essential in digestive track where acids
  and enzymes take a toll.
• Desmosome
• Cell membranes of two cells are locked together
  and form layers. Common in skin.

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EPITHELIAL TISSUEEpithelial Surface

• Microvilli on exposed surfaces.
• On epithelia where absorption and secretion take
  place (digestive track).
• Stereocillia are found only on very specialized
  cells in the male reproductive tract and in the
  inner ear.

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EPITHELIAL TISSUEBasement Membrane

• Epithelial cells not only must hold onto one
  another but also must remain firmly connected to
  the rest of the body, this is the function of the
  basement membrane.
• Provides a barrier that restricts the movement of
  proteins and other large molecules from
  connective tissue into the epithelium.

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EPITHELIAL RENEWAL

• Only survive for a day or two.
• Replaced by continual division of unspecialized
  cells known as stem cells or germinative cells.

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CLASSIFYING EPITHELIA

• Classified by the number of cell layers and the
  shape of the exposed cells.
• Two Types of Layering
• Simple
• Stratified

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CLASSIFYING EPITHELIA

• Three cell shapes
• Squamous Thin and flat
• Cuboidal Resemble little hexagonal boxes
• Columnar Hexagonal, taller and more slender

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CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIACell Shape

1. Simple Squamous Epithelia
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelia
3. Simple Columnar Epithelia
4. Pseudostratified Epithelia
5. Transitional Epithelia
6. Stratified Squamous Epithelia

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GLANDULAR EPITHELIA

• Exocrine - discharge through ducts.
• Endocrine - release into blood or tissue fluids.

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GLANDULAR EPITHELIAMechanism of Secretion

• Three methods
• Merocrine secretion - released through exocytosis
  (mucus)
• Apocrine secretion - involves the loss of both
  cytoplasm and the secretory product (milk)
• Holocrine secretion - entire cell becomes packed
  with secretions and burst a part dies
  (sebaceous)

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GLANDULAR EPITHELIAType of Secretion

• Exocrine Glands characterized by type of
  secretion produced
• Serous Glands Watery solution containing
  enzymes
• Mucous glands Thick, slippery mucus
• Mixed glands Contains more than one secretion

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Deep tissues that are never exposed to the
  environment outside the body.
• Functions include
• Supporting and protecting
• Transporting materials
• Storing energy reserves
• Defending the body

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Most diverse tissues of the body (bone, blood and
  fat)
• Three basic components
• Specialized cells
• Protein fibers
• Ground substance

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CLASSIFYING CONNECTIVE TISSUES

• Based on the physical properties of their matrix,
  connective tissues are classified into three
  major types
• Connective tissue proper - tissue that underlies
  the skin, fatty tissue, and tendons and ligaments
• Fluid connective tissues - blood and lymph
• Supporting connective tissues - cartilage and bone

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

• Contains fibers, a syrupy ground substance and a
  varied cell population. Include
• Fibroblasts Maintains the connective tissue
  fibers of connective tissue proper
• Macrophages Eaters. Tissue defense.
• Fat cells
• Mast cells Bodies defensive mechanism starters

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS

• Three basic types
• Collagen Most common. Long, straight and
  unbranched.
• Elastic Contain elastin.
• Reticular Least common. Form branching,
  interwoven framework in various organs.

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GROUND SUBSTANCE

• Fills all the spaces between cells and surrounds
  all the connective tissue fibers. Clear,
  colorless, and similar in consistency to maple
  syrup.
• Slows movement of pathogens for easier cleanup.

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LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Also called areolar tissue.
• Forms a layer that separates the skin from
  underlying muscles.
• Provides padding and a considerable amount of
  independent movement.

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ADIPOSE TISSUS

• Fat, a loose connective tissue containing
  adipocytes (fat cells).
• Another source of padding.
• Insulation.

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DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES

• Mostly collagen fibers. Also called fibrous
  tissues.
• Tendons
• Ligaments

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FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUES

• Blood and Lymph
• Blood components
• Red Blood Cells
• Plasma
• White Blood Cells
• Platelets
• Vessels

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FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUES

• Lymph components
• Lymphatics
• Lymphocytes

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SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Cartilage - firm gel. Cells called chondrocytes,
  and live in small pockets known as lacunae.
• Types
• Hyaline cartilage
• Elastic cartilage
• Fibrocartilage

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BONE

• Also known as osseous tissue. The matrix of bone
  consists of hard calcium compounds and flexible
  collage fibers.
• General Organization
• Lacunae - contain bone cells (osteocytes)
• Canaliculi
• Periosteum

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MEMBRANES

• Four Membranes
• Mucous membranes (digestive)
• Serous membranes (pleura)
• Cutaneous membrane (skin)
• Synovial membranes (joints)

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MUSCLE TISSUE

• Specialized for contraction
• Types of muscle tissue
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth

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NEURAL TISSUE

• Two Types
• Neuron
• Neuroglia

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NEURON

• Typical Neuron
• Cell body (soma)
• Dendrites
• Axon

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TISSUE INJURIES AND REPAIRS

• Two Processes
• Inflammation
• Brings fighters to the fight
• Regeneration
• Fixing the damage