Human Anatomy (BIOL 1010)

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Human Anatomy(BIOL 1010)

• E. Goffe
• eggoffe_at_ccri.edu
• Office 1132F (Providence)

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What is Anatomy?

• Anatomy ( morphology) study of bodys structure
• Physiology study of bodys function
• Structure reflects Function!!!
• Branches of Anatomy
• Gross Large structures
• Surface Landmarks
• Histology Cells and Tissues
• Developmental Structures change through life
• Embryology Structures form and develop before
  birth

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Hierarchy of the Body

• Molecules?made of chemicals (4 macromolecules in
  body)
• carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
• Cells?made of molecules
• cells and organelles
• Tissue?made of cells
• epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
• Organs?made of tissues
• made of gt1 type of tissue
• Systems?made of organs
• 11 systems in human body
• Organisms?made of systems

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Anatomical Directions

• Anatomical position
• Regions
• Axial vs. Appendicular
• Anatomical Directions-Its all Relative!
• Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
• Medial vs. Lateral
• Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
• Superficial vs. Deep
• Proximal vs. Distal
• Anatomical Planes
• Frontal Coronal
• Transverse Horizontal Cross Section
• Sagittal

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Embryology growth and development of the
body before birth

• 38 weeks from conception to birth
• Prenatal period
• Embryonic weeks 1-8
• Fetal weeks 9-38
• Basic adult body plan shows by 2nd month
• Skin epidermis, dermis
• Outer body wallmuscle, vertebral column and
  spinal cord
• Body cavity and digestive tubes
• Kidney and gonads
• Limbsskin, muscle, bone

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Weeks 5-8 and Fetal Period

• Second month, tadpole ? person
• Tail disappears
• Head enlarges
• Extremities form (day 28, limb buds appear)
• Eyes, nose, ears form
• Organs in place
• Fetal Period
• Rapid growth and maturation
• Organs grow and increase in complexity
  competence

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4 Types of Tissue

1. Epithelium
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous

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Tissues groups of cells closely associated that
have a similar structure and perform a related
function

• Four types of tissue
• Epithelial covering/lining
• Connective support
• Muscle movement
• Nervous control
• Most organs contain all 4 types
• Tissue has non-living extracellular material
  between its cells

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EPITHELIAL TISSUE sheets of cells cover a
surface or line a cavity (tissue type
1)

• Functions
• Protection
• Secretion
• Absorption
• Ion Transport
• Slippery Surface

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Characteristics of Epithelium

• Cellularity
• Specialized Contacts
• Polarity
• Apical vs. Basal
• Supported by Connective Tissue
• Avascular
• Innervated
• Regenerative

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Classification of Epithelium-based on number of
layers and cell shape

• Layers
• Simple
• Stratified
• Psuedostratified
• Stratified layers characterized by shape of
  apical layer
• Shapes
• Squamous
• Cuboidal
• Columnar
• Transitional

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Features of Apical Surface of Epithelium

• Microvilli (ex) in small intestine
• Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane of
  apical epithelial cell
• Increase surface area for absorption
• Cilia (ex) respiratory tubes
• Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane
• Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
• Flagella (ex) spermatoza
• Extra long cilia
• Moves cell

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Features of Lateral Surface of Epithelium

• Cells are connected to neighboring cells via
• Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate
• Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
• Cell Junctions
• Desmosomes-adhesive spots on lateral sides linked
  by
• proteins/filaments, holds tissues
  together
• Tight Junctions-at apical area, plasma membrane
  of
• adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
• Gap junction- spot-like junction occurring
  anywhere
• made of hollow cylinders of protein, lets
  small molecules pass

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Features of the Basal Surface of Epithelium

• Basement membrane Sheet between the epithelial
  and connective tissue layers
• Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
• Basal lamina thin, non-cellular, supportive
  sheet Made of proteins
• Superficial layer
• Acts as a selective filter
• Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving
  new cells
• Reticular fiber layer
• Deeper layer
• Support

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Glands epithelial cells that make and secrete a
water-based substance w/proteins

• Exocrine Glands
• Secrete substance onto body surface or into body
  cavity
• Have ducts (simple vs. compound)
• Unicellular (goblet cells) or Multicellular
  (tubular, alveolar, tubuloalveolar)
• (ex) salivary, mammary, pancreas, liver

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Glands epithelial cells that make and secrete a
water-based substance w/proteins

• Endocrine Glands
• Secrete product into blood stream
• Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
  surrounded by secretory cells
• Hormones travel to target organ to increase
  response (excitatory)
• No ducts
• (ex) pancreas, adrenal, pituitary, thyroid

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4 Types of Connective Tissue

1. Connective Tissue Proper
2. Cartilage
3. Bone Tissue
4. Blood

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Connective Tissue (CT) most abundant and
diverse tissue(tissue type 2)

• Four Classes
• Functions include connecting, storing carrying
  nutrients, protection, fight infection
• CT contains large amounts of non-living
  extracellular matrix
• Some types vascularized
• All CT originates from mesenchyme

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1) Connective Tissue Proper

• Two kinds Loose CT Dense CT
• Prototype Loose Areolar Tissue
• Underneath epithelial tissue
• Functions
• Support and bind to other tissue
• Hold body fluids
• Defends against infection
• Stores nutrients as fat
• Each function performed by different kind of
  fiber in tissue

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Fibers in Connective Tissue

• Fibers For Support
• Reticular form networks for structure support
  (ex) cover capillaries
• Collagen strongest, most numerous, provide
  tensile strength
• (ex) dominant fiber in ligaments
• Elastic long thin, stretch and retain shape
• (ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage

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In Connective Tissue Proper

• Fibroblasts cells that produce all fibers in CT,
  produce secrete protein subunits to make them,
  produce ground matrix
• Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid derived from blood
  in CT proper medium for nutrients, waste
  oxygen to travel to cells found in ground matrix
• Ground Matrix (substance) part of extra-cellular
  material that holds and absorbs interstitial
  fluid, jelly-like with sugar protein molecules

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Defense from Infection

• Areolar tissue below epithelium is bodys first
  defense
• Cells travel to CT in blood
• Macrophages-eat foreign particles
• Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules
  for destruction
• Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for
  inflammation response
• White Blood Cells neutrophils, lymphocytes,
  eosinophils-fight infection
• Ground substance cell fibers-slow invading
  microorganisms

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Specialized Loose CT Proper

• Adipose tissue-loaded with adipocytes, highly
  vascularized, high metabolic activity
• Insulates, produces energy, supports
• (eg) in hypodermis under skin
• Reticular CT-contains only reticular fibers
• Forms caverns to hold free cells
• (eg) bone marrow, holds blood cells
• Forms internal skeleton of some organs
• (eg) lymph nodes, spleen

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Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue

• Contains more collagen
• Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
• Regular vs. Irregular
• Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to
  pull
• (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
• Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different
  directions
• (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones

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Components of CT Proper Summarized
Cells Matrix
Fibroblasts Gel-like ground substance
Defense cells -macrophages -white blood cells Collagen fibers Reticular fibers Elastic fibers
Adipocytes
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2) Cartilage

• Chondroblasts produce cartilage
• Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells
• More abundant in embryo than adult
• Firm, Flexible
• Resists compression
• (eg) trachea, meniscus
• 80 water
• Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/low
  oxygen)
• NOT Innervated
• Perichondrium-dense, irregular connective tissue
  around cartilage
• growth/repair of cartilage
• resists expansion during compression of cartilage

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Cartilage in the Body

• Three types
• Hyaline
• most abundant
• fibrils in matrix
• support via flexibility/resilience
• (eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
• Elastic
• many elastic fibers in matrix too
• great flexibility
• (eg) external ear, epiglottis
• Fibrocartilage
• resists both compression and tension
• (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus

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Components of Cartilage Summarized
Cells Matrix
Chondrocytes Gel-like ground substance
Chondroblasts (in growing cartilage) Lots of water
Some have collagen and elastic fibers
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3) Bone Tissue(a bone is an organ)

• Functions
• support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs
• protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
• mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate
  (inorganic component)
• movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
• blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow

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Components of Bone

• Matrix
• Mineralized with hydroxyappetite
• Cells
• Osteoblasts secrete organic part of bone matrix
• Osteocytes mature bone cells, maintain bone
  matrix
• Connective Tissue Proper
• Periosteum external layer of CT surrounds bone
• Endosteum internal layer of CT lines cavities
  and covers trabeculae
• Both contain osteoblasts and osteoclasts
• Bone is well-vascularized, highly innervated

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Bone Anatomy Compact bone

• Compact bone dense, external layer
• Haversian system osteon
• long, cylindrical structures run parallel to long
  axis of bone
• within each osteon, groups of concentric tubes
  (lamella)
• Lamella layer of bone matrix all fibers run in
  same direction
• fibers on each lamella runs in opposite
  directions to one near it
• Haversian canal-runs through center of osteon,
  contain blood vessels and nerves
• Interstitial Lamella- pieces of bone matrix
  between osteon
• Osteocytes between osteons

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Bone Anatomy Spongy bone

• Spongy bone (cancellous bone) internal layer
• Trabeculae small, needle-like pieces of bone
  form honeycomb
• each made of several layers of lamellae
  osteocytes
• no canal for vessels
• space filled with bone marrow
• not as dense, no direct stress at bones center

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Shapes of Bones

• Flat skull, sternum, clavicle
• Irregular pelvis, vertebrae
• Short carpals, patella
• Long femur, phalanges, metacarpals,
  humerus

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Anatomy of a Long Bone

• Diaphysis
• Medullary Cavity
• Nutrient Art Vein
• 2 Epiphyses
• Epiphyseal Plates
• Epiphyseal Art Vein
• Periosteum
• Outer Dense irregular CT
• Inner Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
• Does not cover epiphyses
• Attaches to bone matrix via collagen fibers
• Endosteum
• Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
• Covers trabeculae, lines medullary cavity

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2 Types of Bone Formation

• Endochondral Ossification All other bones
• Begins with a cartilaginous model
• Perichondrium becomes replaced by periosteum
• Cartilage calcifies
• Medullary cavity is formed by action of
  osteoclasts
• Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify
• Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20
  years
• Intramembranous Ossification
• Membrane bones most skull bones and clavicle
• Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that
  mineralizes
• Trabeculae form between blood vessels, thickens
  to become compact bone at periphery
• Osteocytes maintain new bone tissue
• Periosteum forms over it

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Bone Growth Remodeling

• GROWTH
• Appositional Growth widening of bone
• Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of
  periosteum
• Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts
• Lengthening of Bone
• Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts
• Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and
  disintegrate)
• Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side
• REMODELING
• Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue
  needs to be replaced
• Osteoclasts-take up bone ( breakdown) release
  Ca2 , PO4 to body fluids from bone
• Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid
• Ideally osteoclasts and osteoblasts work at the
  same rate!

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Components of Bone Tissue Summarized
Cells Matrix
Osteocytes Gel-like ground substance calcified with inorganic salts
Osteoblasts Collagen fibers
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4) Blood Atypical Connective Tissue

• Function
• Transports waste, gases, nutrients, hormones
  through cardiovascular system
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Protects body by fighting infection
• Derived from mesenchyme
• Hematopoiesis production of blood cells
• Occurs in red bone marrow
• In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
  epiphyses of humerus and femur

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Blood Cells

• Erythrocytes (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
• most abundant in blood
• no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
• pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body
• Platelets Thrombocytes fragments of cytoplasm
• plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates
  clotting
• Leukocytes (WBC) complete cells , 5 types
• fight against infectious microorganisms
• stored in bone marrow for emergencies

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Components of Blood Summarized
Cells Matrix
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Plasma (liquid matrix)
Leukocytes (white blood cells) NO fibers
Platelets
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Muscle Tissue (tissue type 3)

• Muscle cells/fibers
• Elongated
• Contain many myofilaments Actin Myosin
• FUNCTION
• Movement
• Maintenance of posture
• Joint Stabilization
• Heat Generation
• Three types Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth

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Skeletal Muscle Tissue(each skeletal muscle is
an organ)

• Cells
• Long and cylindrical, in bundles
• Multinucleate
• Obvious Striations
• Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary
• Connective Tissue Components
• Endomysium-surrounds fibers
• Perimysium-surrounds bundles
• Epimysium-surrounds the muscle
• Attached to bones, fascia, skin
• Origin Insertion

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Cardiac Muscle

• Cells
• Branching, chains of cells
• Single or Binucleated
• Striations
• Connected by Intercalated discs
• Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary
• Myocardium-heart muscle
• Pumps blood through vessels
• Connective Tissue Component
• Endomysium surrounding cells

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Smooth Muscle Tissue

• Cells
• Single cells, uninucleate
• No striations
• Smooth Muscle-Involuntary
• 2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)
• Lines hollow organs, blood vessels
• Connective Tissue Component
• Endomysium surrounds cells

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Nervous Tissue

• Neurons specialized nerve cells conduct impulses
• Cell body, dendrite, axon
• Interneuron between motor sensory neuron in
  CNS
• Characterized by
• No mitosis (cell replication)
• Longevity
• High metabolic rate

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Nervous Tissue control

• Support cells ( Glial) nourishment, insulation,
  protection
• Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within
  ganglia
• Schwann cells-surround axons
• Microglia-phagocytes
• Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths around
  axons
• Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord,
  ciliated,help circulate CSF
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves

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Neuronal Anatomy

• Synapse cell junction where neurons communicate
• One direction presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic
  neuron
• Presynaptic neuron
• Synaptic vesicles fuses w/presynaptic membrane
• Neurotransmitters released,
• diffuse across
• synaptic cleft, bind to
  
• postsynaptic membrane
• ?Creates impulse
• (action potential) in
  
• that neuron
• ?Cycle repeats

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Integumentary System

• Skin
• Epidermis epithelium
• Dermis connective tissue
• Hypodermis connective tissue
• Skin Appendages outgrowths of epidermis
• Hair follicles
• Sweat and Sebaceous glands
• Nails

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Integumentary System

• Functions
• Protection
• Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
• Cushions insulates deeper organs
• Prevention of water loss
• Thermoregulation
• Excretion
• Salts, urea, water
• Sensory reception

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Layers of the Epidermis

• Stratum corneum
• Dead keratinocytes
• Stratum lucidum
• Dead keratinocytes
• Stratum granulosum
• Keratinocytes
• Tonofilaments
• Lamellated keratohyaline granules
• Stratum spinosum
• Keratinocytes
• Tonofilaments
• Langerhans cells
• Stratum basale
• Keratinocytes
• Melanocytes
• Merkel receptors

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Dermis

• Highly innervated
• Highly vascularized
• Collagen Elastic fibers
• Many cell types
• Fibroblasts
• Macrophages
• Mast cells
• White blood cells
• Papillary layer (20)
• Areolar CT
• Hair follicles
• Reticular layer (80)
• Dense Irregular CT
• Glands
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands
• Smooth muscle fibers

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Hypodermis

• Also called superficial fascia
• Areolar Adipose Connective Tissue
• Functions
• Store fat
• Anchor skin to muscle, etc.
• Insulation