BI 3321, Early Church

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BI 3321, Early Church

• Part IV

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• The first half of the Middle Ages saw the church
  struggling to survive invasions from without and
  controversies from within.
• The second half witnessed the theological,
  ecclesiastical, and intellectual power struggles
  perpetrated by the church hierarchy.
• Some figures pursued noble and worthy causes,
  some sought to drive out evil forces, some
  espoused personal and universal reform, and some
  were determined to gain ascendancy and power over
  others.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• Leo IX was pope at the time of the Eastern Schism
  in 1054 and will perhaps be remembered for that
  above all else.
• But the papal reforms of the 11th century owed
  much to the impetus of Leo IX, who did much to
  restore the prestige of the papacy through
• his extensive travels,
• his stand against simony,
• his insistence upon the election of bishops by
  clergy and people,
• his firm position on celibacy and his broadening
  of the College of Cardinals to include others
  outside Rome.
• When he died suddenly in 1054, Leo IX did not
  know of the Eastern Schism, but he did know that
  the tide of reform was sweeping through the
  western church.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• The papacy and the entire clergy, was in need of
  universal reform.
• Problems which reflect the decadent state of the
  church included untrained clergy, simony
  (purchase of church posts), sexual laxity, and
  lay investiture (control of the appointment and
  allegiance of abbots, bishops, and popes by the
  lay civil authorities).
• The papal reforms of the 11th century which dealt
  with all these problems came to be known as the
  Gregorian reforms, so-called after Pope Gregory
  VII, who was such a powerful leader before his
  election to the papacy that he is generally
  better known by his earlier name of Hildebrand.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand. Born about 1025 and reared
  in Rome, where he would someday be the chief
  actor in the papal scene for nearly three
  decades, Hildebrand was educated in a monastery
  and in his early twenties became a monk, probably
  at Cluny.
• He returned to Rome in the service of Leo IX, who
  admitted him to minor orders. He became a close
  friend of Peter Damian, the Cardinal-Bishop of
  Ostia, and one of the most intense churchmen
  calling for reform.
• Although his rise to prominence was slow compared
  to others, Hildebrand laid his ground work well,
  worked in the inner circles of power, maintained
  his dedication, and by the time he was 35 he was
  being noticed as a leader of men.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• In 1058, Hildebrand was presented with the
  opportunity to display his real power.
• Emperor Henry III died in 1056 and his 6-year-old
  son came to the throne as Henry IV under the
  regency.
• After the brief reigns of popes Victor II and
  Stephen IX, the royal regency elected Benedict X
  to the papacy.
• Hildebrand was in Germany when he received the
  news of this blatant determination of the
  nobility to retain control over the papacy.
• He raised an army, expelled Benedict, and seated
  Nicholas II on the papal throne. Nicholas reign
  lasted only two years (1059-61) but was
  distinguished by the establishment of the College
  of Cardinals to elect future popes.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• This papal decree of 1059 is still the principal
  basis for governing the papal elections. The
  guiding hands behind Nicholas decree were those
  of Hildebrand and Humbert, a cardinal-bishop from
  Toul.
• Both Humbert and Nicholas died two years later,
  depriving the reformers of two outstanding
  leaders.
• Again, it was Hildebrand who stepped into the
  breach.
• He convened the cardinals in Rome and led them to
  elect Alexander II to the papacy.
• The Roman nobility still had not acquiesced to
  this reform method of electing popes, and
  convinced the regent of Henry IV (still a child
  of eleven years) to appoint an Italian bishop,
  Cadalus, as pope.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• Although Cadalus was an annoying rival during
  Alexanders entire pontificate, the strong
  influence and skillful administration of
  Hildebrand kept Alexander securely in control.
• Alexander was an able pope and served from 1061
  to 1073, when he died while in conflict with
  Henry IV over the appointment of the Archbishop
  of Milan.
• With the death of Alexander, Hildebrand was the
  sole survivor of the band of reformers who had
  started together with Leo IX, and the people
  immediately and loudly acclaimed him as their
  choice for Alexanders successor.
• The cardinals, abbots, monks, and laity all
  agreed, and Hildebrand, while only a deacon, was
  elected to the papacy.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• He had to be ordained a priest before he could
  ascend to the throne, where he took the title of
  Gregory VII.
• His reign lasted from 1073 to 1085 and was one of
  the most outstanding pontificates in history.
• As Pope Gregory VII, Hildebrand wielded sweeping
  powers of clerical reform but without unanimous
  acceptance.
• He enforced clerical celibacy with a strong
  determination to free the church from the world
  but priests and their families were thrown into
  such turmoil and controversy that the issue was
  still raging at the time of the Reformation four
  hundred years later.

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Gregory VII Hildebrand
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• The decree for celibacy however, did eliminate
  the offensive practice of holding church office
  by heredity and it definitely strengthened the
  authority of the pope over the clergy.
• In fact, the absolute authority of the papal
  office was the central theme of Gregory VII.
• In his famous Dictatus Papae, he forthrightly
  declared that,
• the Roman Church was founded by God alone
• the Roman pope alone can with right be called
  universal
• he alone may use the imperial insignia

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• In his famous Dictatus Papae, he forthrightly
  declared that,
• his feet only shall be kissed by all princes
• he alone may depose the emperors
• he himself may be judged by no one
• the Roman Church has never erred, nor will it err
  in all eternity.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• a. Rise of Hildebrand.
• Gregory also advocated that all Christian states
  should form a world empire with the pope at its
  head as Gods representative on earth.
• Most of the claims to supremacy were well
  established at least in theory before Gregory,
  but no one had ever expressed them so
  dogmatically and enforced them so successfully.
  He held frequent councils in Rome to enforce his
  measures, with tenacious attention to stamping
  out simony, clerical marriage, and concubinage.
• He instituted a thorough and permanent chain of
  command, but the bishops were totally dependent
  on the pope, for he was determined to destroy the
  practice of lay investiture which became the
  chief issue of his reign.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy. In 1059 Pope
  Nicholas II had articulated the reform position
  on the selection of important clergymen, which
  was to be henceforth by the authority of clergy
  and people and not civil rulers.
• The pope himself was to be elected by a college
  of cardinals.
• This attitude and action was opposed by the civil
  authorities with varying degrees of hostility
  rising and falling.
• Gregory VII brought the whole issue to a head by
  decreeing through the Lateran Synod of 1075 that
  all clergy were forbidden to receive a bishopric
  or abbey or church from the hands of a secular
  prince or lord, even from the king or emperor.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy.
• His unrelenting position that investiture of
  clergy should be received only from the pope as
  Gods supreme representative in the world was a
  radical revolution within the medieval legal and
  political world.
• As an immediate example for implementing the
  investiture decree, Gregory suspended some
  bishops in Germany who had been appointed by
  civil authorities.
• Henry IV retaliated in anger by appointing some
  bishops to sees in Italy itself.
• When Gregory threatened to excommunicate Henry
  for this sort of action, the emperor put together
  the Synod of Worms in 1076, attended by
  disgruntled bishops who were easily convinced to
  declare Gregory unfit to be pope.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy.
• Armed with the synods verdict, Henry demanded
  that Gregory resign the papacy.
• The following month, Gregory deposed Henry for
  his unheard-of arrogance and iniquities, placed
  him under anathema, and relieved his subjects of
  allegiance to him.
• In a swift stroke of power Gregory swung the
  German political factions behind him, and Henry
  found himself without followers.
• The emperor following the line of political
  expediency asked the pope for forgiveness and
  restoration.
• In the well-known and often-told incident of
  absolution, Henry and Gregory met at Canossa in
  1077 where the pope had taken refuge in a
  fortress while journeying to Augsburg.

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Henry IV at Canossa
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy.
• Gregory would not at first receive the penitent
  Henry who stood in the snow for three days,
  barefooted and thinly clad, seeking an audience.
• Gregory finally received him, and after exacting
  specific promises from the emperor he absolved
  him.
• This remains one of the most vivid demonstrations
  of papal power in history.
• Later, however, both Gregory and Henry broke
  their vows to each other, shattering the accord
  of Canossa.
• When Henrys enemies in Germany elected a rival
  sovereign, Gregory supported them and declared
  Henry deposed again in 1080.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy.
• This time the people felt that Gregory had been
  unfair to Henry and supported the emperor when he
  invaded Rome and called a synod to pronounce
  Gregory deposed.
• The synod had elected another pope, Wibert, in
  Gregorys place Wibert proceeded to crown Henry
  emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
• Gregory retreated to the safety of the castle of
  San Angelo in Rome until he was liberated by his
  loyal Normans from the South.
• The Normans savagely retook Rome and reinstated
  Gregory as pope.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy.
• Within the year however, Gregory died a
  disillusioned and bitter refugee in Salerno.
• He died with his dream of absolute supremacy
  crumbling around him.
• He had wanted too much. He was not interested in
  separation of church and state, but wanted
  absolute control of church over state.
• Gregorys struggle in the investiture controversy
  did eventually culminate in formal settlements.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers
• b. The Investiture Controversy.
• In 1122, Emperor Henry V of Germany agreed to the
  Concordat of Worms, in which the emperor
  relinquished the right of selection and
  investiture of the spiritual office of bishop
  but the bishop was to be answerable to the civil
  ruler in temporal matters.
• The compromise solutions reflected the offsetting
  powers of church and state, and stabilized the
  balance of power for centuries to come.

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Concordat of Worms
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny. The sweeping papal
  reform of the 11th c. which came to be called the
  Hildebrandine or Gregorian reform, owed its
  instigation, in great part, to the influence of a
  monastic reform movement which originated in the
  monastery of Cluny.
• So powerful in fact was the impact of this
  monastery, that all the reforms of the 10th,
  11th, and 12th centuries are often referred to as
  the Cluniac Reformation.
• In 910, William, Duke of Aquitaine designated the
  town and manor of Cluny, in southern Burgundy,
  for the erection of a Benedictine monastery.
• The religious order received not only the lands,
  waters, and revenues in the donation, but also
  the serfs, the workers on the land.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny.
• Thus, with the serfs supplying the essential
  physical labor the monks were free to give
  themselves to spiritual pursuits.
• They were also free, according to the conditions
  of the grant, from interference from the patron,
  his successors, or the king.
• The monks were to retain their own possessions
  and elect their own abbot.
• The monks of Cluny were directly responsible only
  to the papacy.
• A deep sense of piety resulted from the long
  hours of attention to prayer and study, and soon
  a conviction for reform began to prevail.

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Cluniacs at Worship
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny.
• The program of Cluny involved, first of all, a
  call for clerical reform, especially as related
  to simony, celibacy and concubinage.
• But it also spread to include all of
  societymonastic, civil, and ecclesiastical.
• The goal was to permeate society with Christian
  ideals.
• To implement this goal, the monks dedicated
  themselves to prayer, education, and hospitality.
  
• The monasteries of the Cluny chain became the
  inns of the Middle Ages where Christian teachings
  were imposed on the travelers.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny.
• Many new monasteries were erected in the Cluny
  tradition and many older monasteries became
  affiliated, until there were more than 300 houses
  in the Cluniac movement, with all of them subject
  to the mother house at Cluny
• The cluniac reformers worked to eliminate feudal
  warfare, teaching that nobles should use their
  arms only to vindicate the weak and protect the
  church.
• They inaugurated the Truce of God which
  restricted the times for fighting, and the Peace
  of God which restricted the combatants.
• Under the Truce of God, there could be no
  hostilities from sunset Wednesday to Monday
  morning or on holy days.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny.
• Under the Peace of God, there were to be no
  attacks upon priests, nuns, pilgrims, merchants,
  farmers, their animals, tools, or properties.
• These efforts often did more harm than good, the
  princes breaking their vows to keep the Truce
  and Peace.
• The bishops began organizing armies to punish the
  oathbreakers, and then the kings raised armies to
  suppress the churchs armies.
• The Cluniacs were extremely influential in the
  fight to free the church from the control of
  secular powers.
• Since Cluny had been founded upon independence
  from local bishop and civil authorities, it would
  naturally tend to support the independence
  movement.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny.
• Pope Gregory VII, who waged the great investiture
  controversy with Henry IV, received his training
  in the monastery at Cluny.
• Cluny appears to have achieved its stated
  objects, which were
• return to strict Benedictine rule,
• cultivation of the personal spiritual life,
• reduction of manual labor,
• expansion of the splendor of worship,
• foundation of a sound economical organization,
• and independence from lay control.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 1. The Gregorian Reformers.
• c. The Influence of Cluny.
• The success of the Cluniac monasteries, however
  brought a backlash of concern about worldly
  success within monasticism.
• The wealth of the Cluny houses, their easy
  relations with the secular world, and their
  emphasis on worship services led some reformers
  to seek a more austere and primitive path.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• Both the advocates of Cluny and those who desired
  a new direction supplied new fervor for the
  monastic life-style.
• In fad, during this period, monastic orders
  multiplied so rapidly that the pope was forced to
  prohibit additional orders at the Fourth Lateran
  Council in 1215.
• Later, an exception was made in the case of some
  Mendicant Orders, but the issue reflects the
  intensity with which medieval piety had plunged
  into asceticism, the renouncing of the world to
  search for holiness.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders. There were some orders which
  retreated to remote regions, practicing severe
  discipline and constant contemplation.
• These Knights of Asceticism were determined to
  reverse the Cluniac trend of involving
  Christianity in the affairs of the world.
• (1) The Carthusians. In 1004, Bruno, a German
  from Cologne, resigned his teaching position in
  the cathedral school of Rheims and established an
  extremely strict, contemplative order of monks
  near Cartusia at the Grande Chartreuse.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders.
• (1) The Carthusians.
• The emphasis of this order was renunciation of
  the world and mortification of the flesh.
• To attain these goals, the monks lived in
  austerity and self-denial, vowed to silence and
  committed to solitude.
• Each monk had his own private cell and private
  garden and prepared his own food, eating with his
  brothers only on feast days.
• Some of the Carthusians became scholars, mystics,
  and writers of devotional works but they had
  limited influence on society.

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Carthusians
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders.
• (1) The Carthusians.
• Their main achievement was spiritual separation
  and anonymity through cultivated silence.
• Because of their isolation and extreme
  asceticism, the Carthusians were the least
  affected by the decline of monasticism in the
  later Middle Ages.
• During the Reformation, numbers of them were put
  to death by Henry VIII and even more were killed
  during the French Revolution.
• Most of them found refuge in Spain and were not
  able to return to Grande Chartreuse until 1940.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders.
• (2) The Cistercians. The most celebrated order of
  ascetic monks was founded at Citeaux in 1098 by
  Robert of Molesme, who sought to establish a form
  of Benedictism stricter and more primitive than
  any existing.
• As a reaction to the Cluniac style of
  monasticism, the Cistercians emphasized the
  spirit of prophecy rather than the spirit of
  power.
• Whereas the Cluniacs were free from manual labor
  the Cistercians stressed labor instead of
  scholarship, believing that to work is to pray.
  
• They became proficient in the tasks of farming,
  cooking, weaving carpentry and sheep raising.

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Cistercians
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders.
• (2) The Cistercians.
• They became important agricultural pioneers, and
  played a notable part in English sheep farming.
• Their life-style, characterized by simplicity
  discipline, manual labor, vegetarianism, and
  spiritual contemplation, was very appealing to
  the medieval mind.
• Thus the order spread rapidly and before the end
  of the twelfth century 530 Cistercian abbeys had
  been established, and 150 more in the next
  hundred years.
• The most famous Cistercjan monk, Bernard of
  Clairvaux (1090-1153) bridged the age of feudal
  values and the rise of towns and universities.

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Bernard of Clairveaux
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders.
• (2) The Cistercians.
• He was the first of the great medieval mystics.
• He entered the monastery at Citeaux when he was
  twenty-one, but soon led a group to found a new
  house of Clairvaux in the Champagne region.
• Bernard became the most extreme Cistercian of
  them all, emaciating his body through
  deprivation lashing out at the worldly
  tendencies of the church, and denouncing pride,
  injustice, and greed wherever found.
• Because of his moral integrity, knowledge of the
  Bible, devotion to love, and fearless attacks on
  evil, he was often referred to as the conscience
  of Europe.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• a. Ascetic Orders.
• (2) The Cistercians.
• Bernards spiritual and intellectual pursuits
  centered in mysticism and produced the concept of
  Christian love being the imitation of Christ,
  especially as one contemplates the wounds of
  Christ.
• He wielded great power throughout Christendom,
  with at least two popes (Innocent II and Eugenius
  III) being elected on the strength of Bernards
  support.
• Christians today still sing some of his beautiful
  hymns, such as Jesus, The Very Thought of Thee,
  and Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts.
• Cistercian observances widely influenced those of
  other medieval orders, until after the 13th c.
  when the Cistercian fame waned considerably.
• During the 17th c. the Cistercians enjoyed a
  revival of interest and a flurry of new
  congregations.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders. The Carthusians and
  Cistercians were representatives of a group of
  monastic orders which could have been known as
  the working monks because of their devotion to
  manual labor and contemplation.
• Another popular group could have been called the
  preaching monks because they went out from
  their monasteries into the world to preach among
  the ordinary population.
• They became known as the friars (brothers)
  rather than monks, and exist to the present. When
  the friars left their monasteries, they had no
  financial support or physical provisions.
• They depended on the alms or charity of the
  people, and thus became known as the mendicant
  (to beg) orders.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. The Order of Friars Minor
  (lesser brothers) was founded in 1209 by Francis
  of Assisi, the son of a rich cloth merchant of
  Assisi.
• Rejecting his fathers wealth and renouncing his
  earlier life of carefree gaiety, Francis resolved
  to devote his life to the ideals of lady
  poverty.
• On a pilgrimage to Rome, he dumped all his money
  at St. Peters, exchanged clothes with a beggar,
  and begged himself.
• Returning to Assisi, Francis devoted himself to
  serving lepers and repairing chapels and churches
  in the area.

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Assisi
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. He took the words of Matthew
  107-19 to be a personal commission to him and
  began preaching that the kingdom of heaven is at
  hand.
• Crowds and disciples began to follow the
  barefoot, impoverished, intense, and gentle
  Francis.
• The growing number of brothers necessitated
  organization and rules, and Francis reluctantly
  drew up a simple rule of life for himself and his
  associates (Regula Primitiva).
• In 1210 Francis obtained approval from Pope
  Innocent III for his simple rule devoted to
  apostolic poverty.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. The Franciscans followed
  their founder in preaching and caring for the
  poor and sick.
• A society for women, the Poor Clares, began in
  1212 when Clare, an heiress of Assisi, was
  converted and commissioned.
• Francis was constantly afraid that the order
  would succumb to the attachments of the world,
  and in 1221 he drew up a Second Rule which was
  stricter and more definite concerning vows of
  poverty obedience, chastity, prayer, and
  regulations for organizations.
• The Third Rule was confirmed by Pope Honorius III
  in 1223, three years before Francis death.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. The basic requirements for
  Franciscans included absolute poverty for they
  were to possess nothing and to trust the Lord to
  provide.
• They were to guard against pride, vainglory,
  envy, avarice, and were to love their enemies.
• They were not to preach in a diocese without the
  consent of the bishop and none could preach
  without examination and approval by the minister
  general.
• They were to discuss, not theology, but penitence
  and forgiveness.
• They became renowned for the reconciliation of
  feuds, and practically every village, town, and
  farm was visited by these preaching, singing
  troubadours of God.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. The popularity and growth of
  the order meant serious problems on the matter of
  possessions.
• How could so many live by working or begging for
  enough for only one days provisions (one of the
  rules of the order)?
• Eventually disruption came when the Spirituals
  insisted on adhering to all the original rules of
  poverty, and the Conventuals advocated reasonable
  compromise, with the church owning and the
  brothers using necessary property.
• This became the divisive issue of the order with
  violent discussions endangering the whole
  venture.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. Papal bulls permitted
  corporate ownership for the order in 1317-18,
  causing many Spirituals to become schismatics.
• With material prosperity came spiritual laxity
  and a new group called the Observants took up the
  banner of the old Spirituals.
• They opposed the lax Conventuals more than a
  hundred years until they finally won and were
  declared the true Order of St. Francis in 1517.
• At the beginning the rule did not encourage
  learning, and Francis strongly opposed any effort
  to start a house of study.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. After his death, however,
  the general rise of education prevailed in Europe
  and permeated the order.
• 70 new universities were established in Europe
  between 1200 and 1250, and by 1234 the
  Franciscans themselves had a flourishing
  seminary.
• Some of the celebrated scholars of Christendom
  who were Franciscans were Bonaventure, Duns
  Scotus, and William of Occam.
• Much of the work of the Franciscans today is
  carried on in the universities of the world.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (1) The Franciscans. Besides the legacy of the
  order named for him, Francis left the personal
  example of contagious piety and unaffected
  goodness.
• This gentle lover of people and all of Gods
  creation was especially at home in the wilderness
  among the animals and birds.
• He went through frequent and long periods of
  fasting and praying, receiving ecstatic visions.
• He was reported to have performed numerous
  miracles, and one legend says that he received
  the stigmata, bleeding wounds on his body at the
  places where the wounds were on the crucified
  body of Jesus.
• Francis of Assisi was beloved by everyone from
  lepers to leaders and was perhaps the brightest
  personality in the dreary medieval period of
  history.

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St. Francis statue Sonoma County, CA
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (2) The Dominicans. Another mendicant order
  differed drastically from the Franciscans in
  their emphases and results.
• The Franciscan movement symbolized reform,
  redirection, and rededication but the Dominican
  movement symbolized ecclesiastical orthodoxy.
• The Dominican order was founded by the Spaniard
  Domingo (Dominic) de Guzman (1170-1221), who was
  deeply concerned over converting the Albigenses.
• He believed, however, that that group of ascetic
  heretics could only be reached by one who lived
  in poverty and simplicity.

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St. Dominic
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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (2) The Dominicans. He gathered around him a
  group of men dedicated to winning heretics and
  heathen by preaching and poverty.
• To accomplish their task, they became especially
  interested in study and were the first monastic
  order to abandon manual labor and put
  intellectual work in the forefront.
• Because they also practiced both individual and
  corporate poverty, they, like the Franciscans,
  were compelled to beg for their support from the
  populace.
• The Fourth Lateran Council denied recognition to
  Dominic and his mendicant friars, but late in
  1216 Honorius III sanctioned their mission, and
  in 1220 their rule was confirmed.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (2) The Dominicans. In 1217, they laid plans for
  expanding world missions, and within four years
  had organized work in eight countries.
• Because they were devoted to learning from the
  outset, the Dominicans readily established
  themselves in the fast-growing universities and
  gained renown for their scholarship.
• Since they were also dedicated to combat heresy
  and heathenism, they became the watchdogs of the
  churchs Inquisition.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (2) The Dominicans. The popes also used them
  extensively in the preaching of the Crusades, the
  collecting of monetary levies, and the
  carrying-out of diplomatic missions.
• The leading medieval theologians produced by the
  Dominicans were Albert the Great and Thomas
  Aquinas.
• Although the Dominicans have contributed much in
  the fields of devotional books, scriptural
  paraphrases, religious poetry, and popular
  fables, their main interest has always been, and
  continues to be, that of education.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (3) The Carmelites. The Order of Our Lady of
  Mount Carmel was founded in Palestine in 1154 by
  Berthold, and established by the primitive rule
  as laid down in 1209 by Albert of Vercelli, Latin
  Patriarch of Jerusalem.
• This rule was one of extreme asceticism,
  prescribing absolute poverty solitude, and
  vegetarianism.
• After the failure of the crusades, many of the
  Carmelites migrated to Europe and organized on
  the lines of the mendicant friars.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (3) The Carmelites. An Order of Carmelite Sisters
  was founded in 1452, and spread rapidly through
  France, Italy, and Spain.
• In the latter part of the 16th c. the mystical
  Teresa of Avila led in a reform of the Carmelite
  orders, which had grown lax and weak.
• Her disciple, John of the Cross, led in a similar
  reform among the friars.
• Thus the so-called Teresian Reform set the
  Carmelites again on the course of contemplation,
  missionary work, and theology.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (4) The Augustinians. In the middle of the 11th
  c. several communities of clerks in northern
  Italy and southern France sought to live the
  common life of poverty celibacy and obedience, in
  accordance with what they believed to be the
  example of the early Christians.
• They adopted the Rule of St. Augustine, which
  laid down precise monastic observances. The
  sanity of the rule, its adaptability and the
  repute of its supposed author led to its adoption
  by several monastic orders, including the
  Dominicans, the Augustinian Hermits, the
  Servites, and the Visitation nuns.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• b. Mendicant Orders.
• (4) The Augustinians. The flexibility of the rule
  allowed members to follow various vocations,
  active and contemplative.
• The Augustinians had special connections with
  hospitals.
• Some of the more influential Augustinian
  congregations were the Victorines and the
  Premonstratensians.
• The most notable Augustinian monk was none other
  than Martin Luther.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• c. Military Orders. The most peculiar outcome of
  the monastic movement was the combination of the
  ascetic ideal with that of chivalry in the
  formation of knightly or military orders.
• (1) The Knights Hospitalers. The beginnings of
  this order are uncertain, but by the end of the
  11th c., it was headquartered in a hospital at
  Jerusalem.
• Its original duties were to care for the sick,
  and to provide hospitality for pilgrims and
  crusaders.
• It established an armed guard of knights for the
  defense of pilgrims, which developed into a
  regular army.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• c. Military Orders.
• (1) The Knights Hospitalers. In 1099, Master
  Gerard obtained papal sanction for the ordei, and
  his successor Raymond of Provence greatly
  developed the organization.
• During the 12th c. the order spread to Europe,
  and the knights participated in the crusades.
  After the fall of Acre (1291), they escaped to
  Cyprus and conquered Rhodes, which became the
  center of their activities for 200 years they
  then became known as the Knights of Rhodes.
• The order received the sovereignty of Malta from
  Charles V in 1530 and became known as the Knights
  of Malta.
• The surrender of Malta to Napoleon in 1798 placed
  the hospitalers in a precarious position which
  they have maintained to the present.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• c. Military Orders.
• (2) The Knights Templars. The Poor Knights of
  Christ, a military order founded in 1118 to
  defend Jerusalem against the Moslems, soon had to
  drop their name for they had become the
  wealthiest of all monastic orders.
• Their influence spread quickly, and in a few
  short years they had settlements in nearly every
  country in Christendom.
• They introduced solemn forms of initiation and
  elaborate organization. They built several
  castles which served as both monasteries and
  cavalry barracks, of which notable ruins still
  remain.
• Their supporters loaded them with great wealth,
  which was deposited in their temples in Paris
  and London.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• c. Military Orders.
• (2) The Knights Templars. Thus they developed a
  reputation as trusted bankers.
• The Templars carried on an unceasing rivalry with
  the Hospitalers.
• The Templars were suppressed by Clement V at the
  Council of Vienne in 1312 under charges of
  immorality, superstition and heresy.
• Their guilt or innocence was argued for
  centuries, but most historians now feel the
  suppression was in order to get hold of the
  Templars great wealth.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 2. Flourishing Monasticism.
• So monasticism thrived in various forms of
  expression, but always there was the testimony of
  dedicated men and women withdrawing from the
  normal intercourse of society to devote
  themselves to an area of spirituality which they
  felt deserved their entire lives.
• This had a profound effect on the rest of
  Christendom, which was called upon to evaluate
  its own spirituality by the standards of
  monasticism.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 3. Developing Scholasticism.
• While spirituality was being revived through
  monasticism, the medieval period saw also the
  revival of learning through a movement known as
  Scholasticism, so called because it arose from
  the schools of the period and revolved around the
  works of the school men.
• This was a new kind of intellectualism, concerned
  with the relation between faith and reason,
  between realism and nominalism.
• A distinguishing characteristic of Scholasticism
  was its use of the dialectical method of
  philosophy.
• Theological problems were skillfully and
  energetically studied with the tools of logic and
  metaphysics.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 3. Developing Scholasticism.
• The Scholastic method of teaching involved the
  lectio, the public lecture in which the master
  explained the text, and the disputatio, in which
  a view was expounded and objections to it
  proposed and answered in syllogistic form.
• The Scholastic method of writing was typically in
  the form of commentaries which gave systematic
  expositions over the whole field of theology and
  were known as Summae.
• The growth of medieval Scholasticism is usually
  divided into three stages, a formative period
  (11th 12th centuries), a period of
  consolidation (13th c.), and one of criticism
  (14th 15th centuries).

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 3. Developing Scholasticism.
• In the first period Scholastic thought was
  influenced by Platonism derived from Augustine.
• Aristotelian dialectic became important in the
  12th c. largely through the works of Abelard.
• This period was dominated by the controversy
  about the nature of universals, but there was
  also Anselms ontological argument for the
  existence of God.
• The 13th c. saw the culmination and consolidation
  of medieval Scholasticism as evidenced in the
  works of Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas,
  Bonaventura, and Duns Scotus.
• This period was especially enhanced by the
  acquisition of Aristotles works in Latin
  translations and commentaries, and by the coming
  of the Franciscan and Dominican orders to the
  universities.

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Power Struggle (1054-1305)

• A. Spiritual Intellectual Renewal
• 3. Developing Scholasticism.
• The final period of medieval Scholasticism was
  one of criticism and decline.
• The critical attitude is found early in the wor