Structuring Essays and Reports

1
Structuring Essays and Reports
2
Traditional Essay Structure

• Introduction
• Main body
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

3
Introduction

• Sets the scene for the reader.
• Outlines the areas to be discussed and the order
  the areas will be dealt with.
• Defines all key terms and issues.
• Shows how the essay content is relevant and
  linked to the question.

4
Main Body

• This is the bulk of the essay where the question
  is answered.
• Here each main point from your
• plan should be developed into a
• paragraph.
• Start each paragraph with a sentence that states
  the main point of the paragraph (the topic
  sentence).

5
Main Body

• The topic sentence should
• clearly link your point back
• to the essay question.
• Each paragraph should include evidence to support
  the main point, followed by a discussion of how
  the evidence supports the point you are making.
• Conclude each paragraph by explaining the
  consequences of the point for your line of
  reasoning and refer your discussion back to the
  question.

6
Main Body

• Try to ensure that your argument flows by using
  transitional/ linking words to link your ideas.
• This will give your reader an indication of the
  direction that you are taking your argument.
• Provide a balanced view by
• discussing both sides of
• the argument.

7
Conclusion

• Your conclusion is one of the
• most important parts of your
• essay and can be largely responsible
• for what grade you get.
• Summarise the main ideas from the body of the
  essay.
• Refer back to the original question, outlining
  how this has been answered and pointing out the
  central idea of your argument.
• NB No new data should be included in your
  conclusion

8
Structure for Reports

• Main differences in structure
• between an essay and a report
• an abstract or summary is included at the start
  of a report.
• the role of the introduction is different
• the main body of the report is subdivided into
  sections
• conclusions and recommendations are separated
  into different sections

9
Sections in a Report

• Title page
• Summary/ Abstract
• Contents List
• Introduction
• Main body (NB this is not a
• heading for this section)
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Appendices
• Bibliography

10
Title Page

• This should be brief and should give
• the reader an idea of the central theme
• of the report.
• Summary/Abstract
• This should provide the reader with a brief
  outline of the findings, conclusions and
  recommendations of the report.
• This should act as a guide to whether or not the
  report is of interest to the reader before they
  read the full report

11
Content List

• This should list the main sections
• and subsections and the pages
• where they can be found.
• A list of illustrations and appendices should be
  included.
• It is best to complete this section at the end of
  your report.

12
Introduction

• This should set the scene for the reader.
• Give an explanation of why
• your report was written.
• State the aims and objectives of your report.

13
Introduction

• Give an outline of similar work
• which has been done in the past.
• Give an indication of the content covered in the
  report and the structure it will take.
• Give an outline of the methodology used.
• Give an indication of the limitations of the
  report.

14
Main Body

• Should be divided into subsections
• to indicate the various stages in the
  investigation e.g. methodology, results etc.
• This section should provide details of key
  findings.
• It should not include opinions, conclusions or
  recommendations.

15
Conclusion

• This should link the aims and objectives of your
  report to your findings.
• The main points of your report should be pulled
  together.
• Present an overview of your findings
• Give an indication of the consequences of your
  findings.
• NB No new data should be included in your
  conclusion.

16
Recommendations

• Should follow on logically from
• your conclusion.
• Should be specific, measurable
• and achievable.
• Should propose how the problem can be improved by
  suggesting action that could be taken.

17
Appendices

• Should include all
• supplementary information
• I.e. information which is not needed in the main
  body for the majority of reader to understand
  your report and be convinced by your reasoning.

18
Writing Style for Essays and Reports

• Say what you have to say clearly and concisely.
• Write so your work is easy to read
• for the intelligent laymen.
• Write using reported style i.e. avoid
• using the first person i.e. I or we
• It is more appropriate to use more formal phrases
  e.g. It would seem It can be argued that or
  This can be criticised because

19
Writing Style for Essays and Reports

• Avoid clichés and jargon unless it is the
• specialised language of your course.
• Clichés are words and phrases that are no
• longer effective because of over use e.g.
• raining cats and dogs or sick as a parrot.
• Try to ensure you use original phrases

20
Writing Style for Essays and Reports

• Jargon is when complex language is used to put
  across simple ideas.
• Using jargon is not a sign of sophistication-
• it makes your writing difficult to follow.
• RULE - KEEP YOUR LANGUAGE SIMPLE
• However, you may have to use the specialised
  language of your course.
• Ensure that you explain all key terms in your own
  words.

21
Referencing

• Use the Harvard system of
• referencing unless you are told
• otherwise by your tutor eg for psychology
• You should reference only sources you have
  actually read yourself.
• 2 types of sources
• Those you actually quote from or specifically
  mention in your text.
• Sources you do not specifically mention
  (background reading ).

22
Referencing

• References need to be cited at two places in your
  assignment.
• Cited in the text of your work at the point at
  which you refer to them
• All references must be listed, on a
• separate page, alphabetically by author in
• a bibliography at the end of your work.

23
Citation in the text

• Include in your text the name of the author whose
  book you have read and the date of its
  publication. If the authors name occurs
  naturally in your text the publication is added
  in brackets e.g.
• Stewart (1996) states that..

24
Citation in the text

• If the name does not occur naturally
• in your text then both name and date
• are given in brackets e.g.
• In a recent book (Giddens, 1993), it was pointed
  out that..
• Where there are more than two co-authors, the
  first is given followed by et al e.g.
• Atkinson et al (1993) stressed the importance
  of.

25
Citation in the text

• If you want to distinguish between
• two or more publications by the same
• author with the same year of publication,
• you add a, b, c etc. after the date e.g.
• Brookman (1991a) gives an account of
• The Government opposition to this is reported by
  Brookman (1991b) in his.

26
Citation in the text

• If you find a second hand reference which you
  wish to use, do not pretend you have read the
  original text. Always cite the book you are
  actually using (the secondary source) e.g.
• as Freud says ( in Baron and Bryne, 1993)
• In your bibliography you will cite only the
  secondary source ie Baron and Bryne 1993

27
Citations in the Text

• A specific quotation from a text should always be
  identified with its page number after the date,
• separated by a colon e.g.
• Handy (1983254) suggests that Individuals may
  be individuals, but they need a group they can
  identify with.

28
Citations in the Text

• For longer quotations, the text is indented
  without quotations marks e.g.
• The ethnographic approach is described in the
  following way
• The ethnographer has much in common with the
  explorer trying to map a wilderness area. The
  explorer begins with a general problem, to
  identify the major features of the terrain the
  ethnographer wants to describe the cultural
  terrain. Like an ethnographer, the explorer is
  seeking to describe a wilderness area rather than
  trying to find something out.
• (Spradley, 198026)

29
Citing References in your Bibliography

• The bibliography should be on a separate page at
  the end of your assignment.
• The bibliography should contain all the material
  you have used and referred to.
• List the material alphabetically by author.

30
Citing References in your Bibliography

• If you are citing a book include
• Authors surname, initials
• Year of publication
• Title (in italics)
• Edition (if not the first)
• Place of publication
• Publisher
• e.g. Johnson, R., 1994. How to write essays, 2nd
  ed. Manchester Clifton Press.

31
Citing References in your Bibliography

• When citing a journal or newspaper article
  include
• Authors surname and initials
• Year of publication
• Title of article
• Title of journal or newspaper (in italics)
• Volume number and part number (in brackets) or
  date and month
• Page numbers
• e.g. Walsh A, 1999. Smoothing the journey home.
  Nursing Times, 95 (50), 46-57.

32
Citing References in your Bibliography

• For television broadcasts include
• Title of programme (in italics)
• Series (if appropriate)
• Date of transmission
• Channel
• e.g. Dead poor, Panorama, 13.02.99, BBC 1
• For videos and audio cassettes give the format in
  brackets
• e.g. Pride and Prejudice (Video), 1992, BBC

33
Citing References in your Bibliography

• For newspaper or journal articles from the
  internet
• Author (if article does not have an author use
  Anon)
• Year of publication
• Title of the article
• Title of the journal or newspaper (in italics)
• Type of medium e.g. (online)
• Volume and part number or date and month
• Available from (eg world wide web)
• URL
• Accessed date

34
Citing References in your Bibliography

• For example,
• Bray K, 1996. Ringing the best automation
  hi-tech telephone answering systems dont have to
  be so grim. Electronic Telegraph.
  (online).Tuesday 24th September. Available from
  the world wide web URL http//www.telegraph.co.u
  k/et/access?ac150962811542pg//96/9/24/echumn24.
  html (accessed 25th September 1996)

35
Citing References in your Bibliography

• Information on the internet which is not part of
  a specific journal or newspaper
• Author
• Year
• Title
• Version (if applicable)
• Type of medium ie (online)
• Publisher
• Place of publication (if applicable)
• Available from (eg WWW)
• URL
• Access date

36
Citing References in your Bibliography

• For example,
• Cross, P. and Towle, K. 1996. A guide to citing
  internet sources. (online) Bournemouth
  University. Available from the World Wide Web
  URL http//www.bournemouth.ac.uk/service-depts/li
  s/LIS_Pub/harvardsysint.html. (accessed 09/07/99)