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Race and Ethnicity

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Title: Race and Ethnicity


1
Chapter 9
  • Race and Ethnicity

2
What Is Race?
  • Some people view race as
  • Skin color the Caucasian race,
  • Religion the Jewish race
  • Nationality the British race
  • Entire human species the human race

3
Race and Biology
  • A race is a category of people who have been
    singled out as inferior or superior, on the basis
    of real or alleged physical characteristics such
    as skin color, hair texture, eye shape, or other
    attributes.
  • Race has little meaning biologically due to
    interbreeding in the human population.

4
The Social Construction of Race
  • It is culture, rather than biology that defines a
    racial group.
  • Definitions change with historical and cultural
    circumstances.

5
Characteristics of Ethnic Groups
  • Unique cultural traits.
  • A sense of community.
  • A feeling of ethnocentrism.
  • Ascribed membership from birth.
  • Tendency to occupy a geographic area.

6
Dominant (majority) and Subordinate (minority)
Groups
  • A dominant or majority group is one that is
    advantaged and has superior resources and rights
    in a society.
  • A subordinate or minority group is one whose
    members are disadvantaged and subjected to
    unequal treatment by the dominant group and who
    regard themselves as objects of collective
    discrimination.

7
Examples of Minority Groups?
  • Race
  • Ethnicity
  • Gender
  • Sexual Orientation
  • Age
  • Disability
  • Religion

Some people experience Double Jeopardy
8
Prejudice
  • A negative attitude based on generalizations
    about members of selected racial, ethnic, or
    other groups.
  • Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to regard
    ones own culture and group as the standard.
  • Stereotypes are overgeneralizations about the
    appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of
    members of particular categories.

9
Racism
  • A set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used
    to justify the superior treatment of one racial
    or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of
    another racial or ethnic group.
  • A form of prejudice, where the belief is that
    inherited physical characteristics associated
    with racial groups determine unequal abilities
    and characteristics

10
Prejudice can be maintained by
  • The Self-fulfilling prophesy
  • Social distance

11
Bogardus Social Distance Rating Scale
Person expresses a willingness to interact with
minority group member in increasingly close
proximity 1. As a marriage partner 2. As my
close friends 3. As my Neighbors 4. As workers in
my company 5. As citizens of my country 6. As
visitors to my country 7. Prohibited from
entering my country
12
Theories of Prejudice
  • Frustrationaggression hypothesis
  • People who are frustrated in their efforts to
    achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a
    pattern of aggression toward others.
  • Authoritarian Personality
  • Characterized by excessive conformity,
    submissiveness to authority, intolerance,
    insecurity, a high level of superstition, and
    rigid, stereotypic thinking.

13
Theories of Prejudice, continued
  • Socialization and lack of contact
  • Ideology of the American dream - encourages
    prejudice toward the socially disadvantaged

14
Discrimination
  • While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is
    a behavior.

15
Mertons Typology ofPrejudice and Discrimination
16
Four Major Types of Discrimination
  • Isolate discrimination - A prejudiced judge
    giving harsher sentences to African American
    defendants.
  • Small-group discrimination - Small group of white
    students defacing a professors office with
    racist epithets.

17
Four Major Types of Discrimination
  • Direct institutionalized discrimination -
    Intentional exclusion of people of color from
    public accommodations.
  • Indirect institutionalized discrimination Does
    not necessarily involve conscious intent.

18
Contact Hypothesis
  • Contact between divergent groups should be
    positive as long as group members
  • Have equal status.
  • Pursue the same goals.
  • Cooperate with one another to achieve goals.
  • Receive positive feedback while interacting.

19
Contact Hypothesis
  • Contact between divergent groups should be
    positive as long as group members
  • Have equal status.
  • Pursue the same goals.
  • Cooperate with one another to achieve goals.
  • Receive positive feedback while interacting.

20
Functionalist Perspectives on Race and Ethnic
Relations
  • Assimilation A process by which members of
    subordinate racial and ethnic groups become
    absorbed into the dominant culture.
  • Ethnic PluralismThe coexistence of a variety of
    distinct racial and ethnic groups within one
    society.

21
Conflict Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations
  • The Caste Perspective views racial and ethnic
    inequality as a permanent feature of U.S.
    society.
  • Class perspectives emphasize the role of the
    capitalist class in racial exploitation.

22
Conflict Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations
  • Internal Colonialism occurs when members of a
    racial or ethnic group are forcibly placed under
    the control of the dominant group.
  • Split Labor Market - The division of the economy
    into a primary sector composed of higher paid
    workers in more secure jobs, and a secondary
    sector of lower-paid workers in jobs with little
    security.

23
Critical Race Theory
  • Premises
  • The belief that racism is such an ingrained
    feature of U.S. society that it appears to be
    ordinary and natural to many people.
  • The belief that interest convergence is a crucial
    factor in bringing about social change.

24
Racial and Ethnic Groups in the United States
  • Native Americans
  • White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
  • African Americans
  • White Ethnic Americans
  • Asian Americans
  • Latinos/as
  • Middle Eastern Americans

25
Time Line of Racial and Ethnic Groups in the
United States
26
Native Americans
  • Most disadvantaged group in the U.S. in terms of
    income, employment, housing, and nutrition.
  • As a group they have experienced
  • Genocide
  • Forced Migration
  • Forced Assimilation

27
Early Contact with Europeans
  • Arrived 12,000 to 50,000 years ago. Native
    American populations estimates vary from 10 to
    100 million
  • Physical and cultural differences were
    interpreted ethnocentrically as proof of
    inferiority
  • All tribes and nations lumped together as
    Indians

28
Two Concerns have Dominated Government Policy
  • White takeover of native lands. Where there was
    desirable land, whites eventually took it.
  • Transformation of native lifestyles into copies
    of approved white models. Native culture must be
    eradicated.

29
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1889
  • The Indians must conform to the white mans
    ways peaceably if they will, forcibly if they
    must.

30
By the beginning of the 20th century
  • The Indian population was unable to be self
    sufficient, was impoverished and at the mercy of
    the federal government. It numbered only about
    250,000.

31
Pervasive Inequality
  • 84 of national average on high school
    graduation
  • 42 of national average on college education
  • 76 of national average household income
  • Almost twice as likely to lack health insurance
  • Nearly twice as likely to live in poverty

32
African-Americans
  • Second largest minority group in the U.S., making
    up some 13 of the population.
  • Arrived involuntarily - as slaves.
  • Most African Americans could trace their ancestry
    in America to the early colonial period.

33
Epoch One Slavery
  • Why African Americans?
  • Physical appearance
  • Ethnocentrism savages, inferior
  • Powerlessness
  • The Status of Slave
  • No legal rights
  • Property ownership forbidden
  • Working for pay forbidden
  • Entering into contracts forbidden
  • Marriage not legally recognized
  • Importance of social distance
  • Racism as an ideological justification

34
Epoch Two The Jim Crow Era
  • Loss of federal protection after Reconstruction
  • Loss of voting rights
  • Jim Crow laws
  • Legally enforced segregation
  • Housing
  • Work
  • Education
  • Health care
  • Transportation
  • Religion
  • Leisure
  • Ideology of Social Darwinism

35
Epoch Three The Modern Era
  • Important Legislation
  • 1941 - Racial discrimination in federal jobs
    prohibited
  • End of WWII Desegregation of the armed forces
  • 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka
  • 1964 Civil Rights Act
  • Black Protest
  • Non-violence as a tactic to fight segregation
  • Black Power as an ideology to fight inequality
  • Self-determination
  • Self-image

36
Asian Americans
  • 4 of the U.S. population.
  • From Japan, China, South Asia, the Philippines,
    and Southeast Asia.
  • Have the highest average household income of any
    major ethnic group.
  • Japanese and Chinese-Americans surpass whites in
    educational attainment.

37
The History of Discrimination
  • The Yellow Peril
  • Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882
  • The Gentlemens Agreement with Japan, 1907
  • The Oriental Exclusion Act, 1924
  • Japanese Internment, 1941

38
Asian Americans as the Model Minority
  • Levels of achievement
  • Median family income 29 above national average
  • 44 of Asian Americans have at least Bachelors
    degrees (the U.S. average is 24)
  • A positive or negative stereotype?

39
Factors in Asian American Economic Success
  • Innate superiority?
  • Pre-existing social and occupational standing
  • Cultural Values (the achievement syndrome)
  • The value of education
  • Work ethic
  • Family values

Core values of the Confucian and Buddhist
traditions Achievement, a cohesive family and
hard work.
40
 Hispanics
  • Largest minority group in the U.S.
  • Majority are of Mexican heritage, Latinos have
    also arrived in America from Cuba, Puerto Rico,
    and many Central and South American nations.
  • Will make up about 20 of the U.S. population by
    the year 2050.

41
Who is Hispanic?
  • Race or Ethnicity?
  • Dominant groups label vs. self perception
  • Ethnically diverse with different paths of entry
  • Mexican
  • Puerto Rican
  • Cuban
  • South and Central American

42
Hispanics
  • Rapid growth rates raises concerns
  • New immigrants are young and poorly educated
    resulting in lower income levels.
  • Concerns among non-Hispanic Americans over
    competition for jobs.
  • Increasing immigration results in segregation.

43
Hispanics and the Class System
  • An In-Between Position
  • The hierarchy Cubans/Mexicans/Puerto Ricans
  • Factors inhibiting social mobility
  • Education
  • Age
  • Language
  • Changed economy

44
Hispanic Patterns of Assimilation
  • Acculturation
  • Language
  • Ethnic community
  • Proximity to country of origin
  • Assimilation
  • Secondary structural assimilation
  • Primary structural assimilation

45
Middle Eastern Americans
  • Includes immigrants from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,
    Iran, and Jordan.
  • The Lebanese, Syrians, and Iranians primarily
    come from middle class backgrounds.
  • Most Iranian immigrants initially hoped to return
    to Iran however, many have become U.S. citizens.

46
Why have some ethnic groups done better than
others (experienced social mobility)?
  • Origin of Contact
  • Conquest
  • Annexation
  • Voluntary Immigration
  • Involuntary Immigration
  • Degree of
  • Ethnocentrism
  • Degree of Physical difference, Cultural
    difference
  • Competition
  • Unequal distribution of power

47
Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the United States
48
Chapter 10
  • Sex and Gender

49
 Sex and Gender
  • Sex refers to the biological differences between
    females and males.
  • Gender refers to the culturally and socially
    constructed differences between females and males.

50
Chapter 10
  • Sex and Gender

51
Sex Characteristics
  • At birth, male and female infants are
    distinguished by primary sex characteristics the
    genitalia used in the reproductive process.
  • At puberty, an increased production of hormones
    results in the development of secondary sex
    characteristics physical traits that identify an
    individuals sex.

52
Sexual Orientation
  • An individuals preference for emotionalsexual
    relationships with members of the opposite sex
    (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality),
    or both (bisexuality).

53
Sexual Orientation
  • Homosexual and gay are most often used in
    association with males who prefer same-sex
    relationships.
  • Lesbian is used in association with females who
    prefer same-sex relationships.
  • Heterosexual individuals, who prefer opposite-sex
    relationships, are sometimes referred to as
    straight.

54
Sexual Orientation
  • An individuals preference for emotionalsexual
    relationships with members of the opposite sex
    (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality),
    or both (bisexuality).

55
Hermaphrodites
  • Caused by a hormone imbalance, a hermaphrodite
    has a combination of male and female genitalia.
  • Western societies acknowledge two sexes, other
    societies recognize three
  • Men
  • Women
  • Berdaches - males who behave, dress, work,and are
    treated as women.

http//www.coreymondello.com/Berdache.html
56
Gender The Cultural Dimension
  • Most sex differences are socially constructed
    gender differences.
  • Gender is embedded in the images, ideas, and
    language of a society.
  • Gender is used as a means to divide up work,
    allocate resources, and distribute power.

57
Sexism toward Women
  • Three components
  • Negative attitudes toward women.
  • Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement,
    or justify the prejudice.
  • Discrimination - acts that exclude, distance, or
    keep women separate.

58
Gender Stereotypes
  • Men
  • strong, rational, dominant, independent, less
    concerned with appearance
  • Women
  • weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, anxious
    about appearance

59
What do we mean by Sexism?
  • Sexism Men and women have biologically
    different capacities that form a legitimate
    reason for unequal treatment.

60
Gendered Division of Labor Hunting and Gathering
61
Gendered Division of Labor Horticultural and
Pastoral
62
Gendered Division of Labor Agrarian
63
Gendered Division of Labor Industrial
64
Single Mothers with ChildrenUnder 18
  • Between 1990 and 2004, the number of U.S.
    families headed by single mothers increased by
    about 25.
  • This marks a change in the roles of many women,
    and may indicate that traditional households
    are in decline in

65
Parents and Gender Socialization
  • Children's clothing and toys reflect their
    parents' gender expectations.
  • Children are often assigned household tasks
    according to gender.

66
Peers and Gender Socialization
  • Peers help children learn gender-appropriate and
    inappropriate behavior.
  • During adolescence, peers often are more
    effective at gender socialization than adults.
  • College student peers play an important role in
    career choices and the establishment of long
    term, intimate relationships.

67
Schools and Gender Socialization
  • Teachers provide messages about gender through
    classroom assignments and informal interactions
    with students.
  • Teachers may unintentionally show favoritism
    toward one gender over the other.

68
Sports and Gender Socialization
  • From elementary school through high school
  • Boys play football.
  • Girls are cheerleaders, members of the drill
    team, and homecoming queens.
  • For many males, sports is a training ground for
    masculinity.

69
Mass Media and Gender Socialization
  • On television
  • Male characters typically are more aggressive,
    constructive, and direct.
  • Females are deferential toward others or use
    manipulation to get their way.
  • See page 302 (Greys Anatomy and Desperate
    Housewives)

70
The Wage Gap
71
The Wage Gap
72
The Wage Gap
73
Bachelors Degrees Earned, by Field, 1971 and 2000
74
Bachelors Degrees Earned, by Field, 1971 and 2000
75
Sex Differences in Earnings from the Same
Occupation
76
Views of Division of Labor by Gender
77
Structural-functional Theory of Gender Inequality
  • Focuses on the functions of gendered division of
    labor
  • Reduces competition between men and women.
  • Makes both sexes specialists in their roles.
  • Requires an interdependence of men and women.

78
Conflict Theory of Gender Inequality
  • Subjugation of women to subordinate roles
    benefits men and capitalism.
  • Capitalists benefit from a labor market that
    splits the interests of men and women workersin
    favor of men.
  • Segmented labor market provides a low-wage female
    labor reserve.

79
The Human Capital Model
  • According to this model, individuals vary in the
    amount of human capital they bring to the labor
    market.
  • Human capital is acquired by education and job
    training it is the source of a persons
    productivity and can be measured in terms of the
    return on the investment (wages) and the cost
    (schooling or training) .

80
The Feminist Movement
  • Up to the mid 19th Century
  • Women could not vote
  • Women could not own property
  • Women could not enter into contracts
  • Women could not testify in court
  • First wave of feminism concentrated on gaining
    legal rights
  • Second wave focused on extending legal rights and
    on gender issues, such as violence and gender
    stereotypes

81
Legislative Changes
  • 19th Amendment Right to vote for women in 1920
  • Title VII 1964 prohibits employment
    discrimination based on race, color, religion,
    sex and national origin.
  • Title IX 1972 guarantees equal rights for women
    in education
  • Financial aid
  • Classes
  • Health insurance
  • Athletics

82
Male Disadvantages
  • The male role does not encourage the cultivation
    of emotionally supportive relationships.
  • Men may suffer serious stress from associating
    self-esteem with net worth.

83
Differences in Life Chances by Sex Health
Ratio of Men to women by Age Age Sex
Ratio 14-17 106.3 18-24 105.3 25-34 100.2
35-44 98.2 45-54 95.6 55-64 90 65-84
71.8 85 39.7
84
Chapter 11
  • Families and Intimate Relationships

85
Chapter 11
  • Families and Intimate Relationships

86
Traditional Definition of Family
  • A group of people who are related by blood,
    marriage, or adoption, live together, are an
    economic unit, and bear and raise children.
  • Is this definition still relevant today?

87
New Definition of Family
  • Relationships in which people live together with
    commitment, form an economic unit and care for
    any young, and consider their identity to be
    significantly attached to the group.

88
The family is important throughout the life
course. It structures our lives and identities
  • As we consider our lives from birth to death, we
    tend to think of ourselves in family roles. Being
    a youngster usually means growing up in a family
    being an adult usually means having a family
    being elderly often means being a grandparent.

89
Family Structure and Characteristics
  • Kinship refers to a social network of people
    based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. 
  • Family of orientation is the family into which a
    person is born and in which early socialization
    usually takes place.
  • Family of procreation is the family a person
    forms by having or adopting children.

90
Family Structure and Characteristics
  • An extended family is composed of relatives in
    addition to parents and children who live in the
    same household. A nuclear family is composed of
    one or two parents and their dependent children,
    all of whom live apart from other relatives.

91
Polling Question
  • The strength of the American family is declining.
  • Strongly agree
  • Agree somewhat
  • Unsure
  • Disagree somewhat
  • Strongly disagree

92
Dating and Mate Selection
  • Today industrialized societies base commitment to
    marriage on love
  • Romantic vs. familial love
  • How do we fall in love?
  • Sternbergs Triangle of Love
  • Intimacypassiondecision/commitment consummate
    love
  • Reisss Wheel of Love
  • Rapport, Self revelation, mutual need dependency,
    personality need fulfillment

93
Marriage
  • Legally recognized arrangement between two or
    more individuals that carries certain rights and
    obligations.
  • Monogamy is the only form of marriage sanctioned
    by law in the United States.
  • Establishes a system of descent so kinship can be
    determined.

94
Monogamy
  • A marriage between two partners, usually a woman
    and a man.
  • Through a pattern of marriage, divorce, and
    remarriage, some people practice serial
    monogamya succession of marriages in which a
    person has several spouses over a lifetime but is
    legally married to only one person at a time.

95
The reflection of traditional gender roles
  • The median age at first marriage for women is
    25.3 and for men, 27.1
  • 78 of wives have lower levels of education than
    do their husbands (for cohabiting couples, the
    number is 71)
  • 98 of all stay at home parents are women
  • Wives are more than twice as likely to be
    involved in eldercare responsibilities than are
    their husbands

96
Polgamy
  • The concurrent marriage of a person of one sex
    with two or more members of the opposite sex.
  • The most prevalent form of polygamy is
    polygynythe concurrent marriage of one man with
    two or more women.
  • Polyandry is the concurrent marriage of one woman
    with two or more men.

97
Patterns of Unilineal Descent
  • Patrilineal descent traces descent through the
    fathers side of the family.
  • Matrilineal descent is a system of tracing
    descent through mothers side of the family.

98
Bilineal Descent
  • Tracing kinship through both parents.
  • The most common form is bilateral descent.
  • A system of tracing descent through both the
    mothers and fathers sides of the family.

99
Power and Authority in Families
  • A patriarchal family is a family structure in
    which authority is held by the eldest male.
  • A matriarchal family is a family structure in
    which authority is held by the eldest female.
  • An egalitarian family is a family structure in
    which both partners share power and authority
    equally.

100
Household Composition 1970 and 2000
101
Residential Patterns
  • Patrilocal residence refers to a married couple
    living in the same household as the husbands
    family.
  • Matrilocal residence refers to a married couple
    living in the same household as the wifes
    parents.
  • Neolocal residence refers to a married couple
    living in their own residence apart from the
    husbands and the wifes parents.

102
Endogamy and Exogamy
  • Endogamy is the practice of marrying within ones
    own group.
  • In the United States, most people marry people
    who come from the same social class,
    racialethnic group, religious affiliation, and
    other categories considered important within
    their own social group.
  • Exogamy is the practice of marrying outside ones
    own social group or category.

103
Theoretical Perspectives On Families             
104
Functionalist Perspective Four Functions of
Families
  • Sexual regulation
  • Socialization
  • Economic and psychological support for members.
  • Provision of social status and reputation.   

105
Conflict Perspective
  • Families in capitalist economies are similar to
    workers in a factory
  • Women are dominated at home the same way workers
    are dominated in factories.
  • Reproduction of children and care for family
    members reinforce subordination of women through
    unpaid labor.

106
Cohabitation
  • Refers to two people who live together, and think
    of themselves as a couple, without being legally
    married.
  • A recent study of 11,000 women found that there
    was a 70 marriage rate for women who remained in
    a cohabiting relationship for at least 5 years.
  • Of the women in that study who married their
    partner, 40 became divorced within a 10-year
    period.

107
Domestic Partnerships
  • Household partnerships in which an unmarried
    couple lives together in a committed, sexually
    intimate relationship and is granted the same
    rights and benefits as those accorded to married
    heterosexual couples.

108
Homagamy
  • The pattern of individuals marrying those who
    have similar characteristics, such as
    race/ethnicity, religious background, age,
    education, or social class.

109
Housework and Child-Care Responsibilities
  • Today, more than 50 of all marriages in the
    United States are dual-earner marriagesmarriages
    in which both spouses are in the labor force.
  • in 2004 more than 74 of employed mothers with
    children under age 6 worked full time
  • Many married women work a full day then go home
    to perform hours of housework and child care.
  • Sociologist Arlie Hochschild refers to this as
    the second shift.

110
Deciding to Have Children
  • Sociologists suggest fertility is linked not only
    to reproductive technologies but also to womens
    beliefs about whether they have opportunities
    that are viable alternatives to childbearing.
  • The desire not to have children often comes in
    conflict with our societys pronatalist
    bias,which assumes having children is the norm.

111
Infertility
  • Defined as an inability to conceive after a year
    of unprotected sexual relations.
  • Infertility affects nearly five million U.S.
    couples, or one in twelve couples in which the
    wife is between the ages of fifteen and forty
    four.

112
Adoption
  • A legal process through which the rights and
    duties of parenting are transferred from a
    childs biological and/or legal parents to a new
    legal parent or parents.
  • This gives the adopted child all the rights of a
    biological child.

113
Infertility
  • Defined as an inability to conceive after a year
    of unprotected sexual relations.
  • Infertility affects nearly five million U.S.
    couples, or one in twelve couples in which the
    wife is between the ages of fifteen and forty
    four.

114
Teen Pregnancy
  • The United States has the highest rate of teen
    pregnancy in the Western industrialized world.

115
Primary Reasons for Teen Pregnancy Microlevel
  • Many sexually active teens dont use
    contraceptives.
  • Teenagers may receive little accurate information
    about the use of contraception.
  • Some teenage males believe females should be
    responsible for contraception.
  • Some teenagers view pregnancy as a way to gain
    adult status.

116
Single Parenting
  • 42 of white children and 86 of African American
    children spend part of their childhood in a
    single parent household.
  • Lesbian and gay parents are often counted as
    single parents, however many share parenting with
    partner.

117
U.S. Marital Status15 and over by Ethnicity
118
Characteristics of Those Likely to Get Divorced
  • Marriage at an early age.
  • A short acquaintanceship before marriage.
  • Disapproval of the marriage by relatives and
    friends.
  • Limited economic resources.

119
Characteristics of Those Likely to Get Divorced
(continued)
  • Having a high-school education or less.
  • Parents who are divorced or have unhappy
    marriages.
  • The presence of children at the beginning of the
    marriage.

120
Divorce
  • The legal process of dissolving a marriage that
    allows former spouses to remarry if they so
    choose.
  • Recent studies have shown that 43 of first
    marriages end in separation or divorce within 15
    years.

121
Blended Families
  • Some people become part of blended families,
    which consist of a husband and wife, children
    from previous marriages, and children (if any)
    from the new marriage.

122
Chapter 12 Education and Religion
123
Sociological Perspectives on Education
  • Functionalists suggest that education contributes
    to the maintenance of society and provides
    opportunity for upward social mobility.
  • Conflict theorists argue that education
    perpetuates social inequality.

124
Functions of Education
  • Socialization
  • Transmission of culture
  • Social control
  • Social placement
  • Change and innovation

125
Conflict Perspective
  • Education reproduces existing class
    relationships.
  • Unequal funding is a source of inequality in
    education.
  • Access to colleges and universities is determined
    not only by academic record but also by the
    ability to pay.

126
Cultural Capital and Class Reproduction
  • According to the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu,
    students come to school with different amounts of
    cultural capital.
  • socially approved dress and manners, knowledge
    about books, art, music
  • The educational system teaches and reinforces
    values that sustain the elites position in
    society.

127
Dropping Out
  • About 10 of people between the ages of 14 and 24
    left school before earning a high school diploma.
  • Dropout Rates
  • Latinos/(Hispanics) - 24
  • African Americans - 12.2
  • non-Hispanic whites - 7.9
  • Asian Americans - 1

128
Community Colleges
  • In 1948 a presidential commission report called
    for the establishment of a network of public
    community colleges that would
  • charge little or no tuition
  • serve as cultural centers
  • be comprehensive in their program offerings
  • serve the area in which they were located.

129
Community Colleges
  • According to the American Association of
    Community Colleges (2005)
  • There are 1,166 community colleges in the U.S.
  • They enroll almost 12 million students.
  • Community college enrollment accounts for 46 of
    U.S. undergraduates.
  • Almost 40 of community college students receive
    financial aid.
  • Women make up 58 of community college students.

130
Religion and the Meaning of Life
  • Religion seeks to answer important questions such
    as why we exist, why people suffer and die, and
    what happens when we die.
  • Religion seeks to explain suffering, death, and
    injustice in the realm of the sacred.
  • Things that people do not set apart as sacred are
    referred to as profanethe everyday, secular or
    worldly aspects of life.

131
Functionalist Perspective
  • Religion has 3 functions
  • Providing meaning and purpose to life.
  • Promoting social cohesion and a sense of
    belonging.
  • Providing social control and support for
    important norms.

132
Conflict Perspective
  • Religion as an ideology
  • According to Karl Marx, religion is the "opiate
    of the people."

133
Major U.S. Denominations That Self-identify As
Christian
134
Major U.S. Denominations That Self-identify As
Christian
135
U.S. Religious BodiesMembership
136
U.S. Religious BodiesMembership
137
Consequences of Religiosity
  • People with higher levels of religious
    affiliation tend to be friendlier, happier,
    cooperative, and more satisfied with their lives
    than others.
  • Religious affiliation has also been linked to
    socially conservative and authoritarian attitudes
    that maintain the status quo.
  • College women who regularly attend church are
    less likely to become pregnant and have fewer
    sexual partners

138
Chapter 13
  • Politics and the Economy in Global Perspective

139
Politics, Power and Authority
  • Politics is the social institution through which
    power is acquired and exercised by some people
    and groups.
  • Government is the formal organization that has
    the legal and political authority to regulate
    relationships among members of a society and
    between the society and those outside its
    borders.

140
Ideal Types of Authority
  • Traditional
  • Kings, Queens, Emperors, religious dignitaries
  • Charismatic
  • politicians, soldiers, entertainers
  • Rationallegal
  • elected officials

141
Both mom and the state have power
  • But they differ in the basis of their power, the
    range of their jurisdiction and the ways in which
    they can enforce their decisions.

142
Power and the State
  • While other social institutions (such as the
    family or religion) or organizations (such as the
    workplace) or people may have power over us, the
    state exercises power over the society as a
    whole. It trumps the other bases of power.

143
Political Systems in Global Perspective
  • Political institutions emerged when agrarian
    societies acquired surpluses and developed social
    inequality.
  • When cities developed, the city-state became the
    center of political power.
  • Nation-states emerged as countries acquired the
    ability to defend their borders.

144
Nation-states
  • Approximately 190 nation-states currently exist
    throughout the world.
  • Today, everyone is born, lives, and dies under
    the auspices of a nation-state.
  • Four types of political systems are found in
    nation-states monarchy, authoritarianism,
    totalitarianism, and democracy.

145
Types of Political Systems
  • Monarchy - A political system in which power
    resides in one person or family and is passed
    from generation to generation through lines of
    inheritance.
  • Authoritarianism - A political system controlled
    by rulers who deny popular participation in
    government.

146
Types of Political Systems
  • Totalitarianism - A political system in which the
    state seeks to regulate all aspects of people's
    public and private lives.
  • Democracy - A political system in which the
    people hold the ruling power either directly or
    through elected representatives.

147
Functionalist Perspectives Pluralist Model
  • The functions of government
  • maintain law and order
  • plan and direct society
  • meet social needs
  • handle international relations

148
Conflict Perspectives Elite Models
  • Power in political systems is in the hands of a
    small group of elites and the masses are
    relatively powerless.
  • Decisions are made by the elites, who agree on
    the basic values and goals of society.
  • The needs and concerns of the masses are not
    often given full consideration by the elite.

149
Voter Apathy
  • 10 of the voting-age population participates at
    a level higher than voting.
  • Over the past 40 years, less than half the
    voting-age population has voted in
    nonpresidential elections.
  • In many other Western nations, the average
    turnout is 80 to 90 of all eligible voters.

150
Why Eligible Voters Dont Vote
  • Conservative argument
  • People are satisfied with the status quo, are
    uninformed and lack an understanding of
    government processes.
  • Liberal argument
  • People feel alienated from politics due to
    corruption and influence peddling by special
    interests and large corporations.

151
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
152
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
153
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
154
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
155
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
156
Voter Preferences in the 2004 Presidential
Election
157
The Economy
  • The social institution that ensures the
    maintenance of society through the production,
    distribution, and consumption of goods and
    services.
  • Goods are objects that are necessary or desired.
  • Services are activities for which people are
    willing to pay.

158
Characteristics of Industrial Economies
  • New forms of energy, mechanization, and the
    growth of the factory system.
  • Increased division of labor and specialization
    among workers.
  • Universal application of scientific methods to
    problem solving and profit making.

159
Characteristics of Industrial Economies
  • Introduction of wage labor, time discipline, and
    workers deferred gratification.
  • Strengthening of bureaucratic organizational
    structure.

160
Characteristics of the Postindustrial Economy
  • Information displaces property as the central
    preoccupation in the economy.
  • Workplace culture shifts away from factories and
    toward diverse work settings, the employee, and
    the manager.
  • The conventional boundaries between work and home
    are breached.

161
Capitalism
  • Four distinctive features
  • Private ownership of the means of production.
  • Pursuit of personal profit.
  • Competition.
  • Lack of government intervention.

162
The United States is actually not a pure
capitalist society
  • Social welfare
  • Social security
  • Progressive taxation
  • Public education
  • Labor laws

163
Socialism
  • Three distinctive features
  • Public ownership of the means of production.
  • Pursuit of collective goals.
  • Centralized decision-making.

164
Example of a Democratic Socialist Nation
  • Sweden

165
Five Characteristics of Professions
  • Abstract, specialized knowledge
  • Autonomy
  • Self regulation
  • Authority
  • Altruism

166
SAT Scores by Parents Income and Education, 2004
167
Types of Unemployment
  • Cyclical - result of lower rates of production
    during recessions.
  • Seasonal - result of shifts in the demand for
    workers based on holidays.
  • Structural - skills needed by employers do not
    match skills of unemployed.

168
Labor Unions and Strikes
  • In recent years, strike activity has diminished
    as workers fear losing their jobs.
  • In 2002 only 19 strikes involving more than 1,000
    workers were reported.
  • Number of workers involved in the actions
    declined from more than 2.5 million in 1971 to
    192,000 in 1995.

169
Employment For Persons With A Disability
  • Workers with a disability make 85 (men) and 70
    (women) of what coworkers without disabilities
    earn.
  • A survey of executives responsible for making
    hiring decision for their companies found that
    the average cost of workplace modifications to
    accommodate employees with a disability was less
    than 500.

170
Chapter 14
  • Health, Health Care, and Disability

171
Health, Health Care, and Medicine
  • Health is a state of physical, mental, and social
    well-being.
  • Health care is any activity intended to improve
    health.
  • Medicine is an institutionalized system for the
    scientific diagnosis, treatment, and prevention
    of illness.

172
Social Epidemiology
  • Study of the causes and distribution of health,
    and disease in a population
  • Disease agents insects, bacteria, nutrient
    agents, pollutants, and temperature.
  • Environment - physical, biological and social
    environments.
  • Human host -demographic factors such as age,
    sex, and race/ethnicity.

173
John Snow and the London Cholera Epidemic of 1854
  • On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly
    all the deaths had taken place within a short
    distance of the Broad Street pump. There were
    only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly
    nearer to another street-pump. In five of these
    cases the families of the deceased persons
    informed me that they always sent to the pump in
    Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that
    of the pumps which were nearer. In three other
    cases, the deceased were children who went to
    school near the pump in Broad Street...
  • With regard to the deaths occurring in the
    locality belonging to the pump, there were 61
    instances in which I was informed that the
    deceased persons used to drink the pump water
    from Broad Street, either constantly or
    occasionally...
  • The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there
    has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of
    cholera in this part of London except among the
    persons who were in the habit of drinking the
    water of the above-mentioned pump well.
  • I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of
    St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst
    Sept 7, and represented the above circumstances
    to them. In consequence of what I said, the
    handle of the pump was removed on the following
    day.

174
Demographic Factors Age
  • Rates of illness and death are highest among the
    old and the young.
  • After age 65, rates of chronic diseases and
    mortality increase rapidly.
  • Chronic diseases are long term or lifelong and
    develop gradually or are present from birth.
  • Acute diseases strike suddenly and cause dramatic
    incapacitation and sometimes death.

175
Demographic Factors Sex
  • Prior to the 20th century, women had lower life
    expectancies because of high mortality rates
    during pregnancy and childbirth.
  • Women now live longer than men.
  • For babies born in the United States in 2003,
    life expectancy at birth was 74.8 years for males
    and 80.1 years for females.

176
Demographic Factors Race/Ethnicity and Social
Class
  • According to a study by the Stanford Center for
    Research in Disease Prevention, people have a
    higher survival rate if they live in
    better-educated or wealthier neighborhoods.
  • People of color are more likely to have incomes
    below the poverty line, and the poorest people
    receive less preventive care and less management
    of chronic diseases.

177
Lifestyle Factors Alcohol and Tobacco
  • Chronic heavy drinking or alcoholism can cause
    permanent damage to the brain or other parts of
    the body.
  • Tobacco is responsible for about one in every
    five deaths in this country.

178
Lifestyle Factors Illegal Drugs
  • High doses of marijuana smoked during pregnancy
    can result in congenital abnormalities and
    neurological disturbances.
  • Some studies found an increased risk of cancer
    and lung problems associated with marijuana
    because its smokers are believed to inhale more
    deeply than tobacco users.
  • People who use cocaine over extended periods of
    time have higher rates of infection, heart
    problems, internal bleeding, hypertension and
    stroke.

179
Lifestyle Factors Sexually Transmitted Diseases
  • Sexual activity can result in the transmission of
    sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including
    AIDS, gonorrhea, syphilis, and genital herpes.
  • Prior to 1960, the incidence of STDs in this
    country had been reduced sharply by barrier-type
    contraceptives and the use of penicillin as a
    cure.
  • In the 1960s and 1970s the number of cases of
    STDs increased rapidly with the introduction of
    the birth control pill, which led to couples
    being less likely to use barrier contraceptives.

180
AIDS/HIV
  • In 2006, there are approximately one million
    persons in the U.S. with HIV/AIDS
  • 40,000 new infections will occur this year
  • Global Adult prevalence of AIDS
  • U.S. About 1 in 100
  • Western and Central Europe About 1 in 300
  • Middle East and North Africa About 1 in 500
  • Sub-Saharan Africa About 1 in 17
  • Highest risk groups in the U.S. is gay black men

181
Human Papilloma Virus HPV may be the most common
STD in the United States
  • It is also the major cause of cervical cancer.

182
Study of HPV on a College Campus
  • 604 college women were administered a
    questionnaire to obtain personal and sexual
    behavior information. They were also given a
    pelvic examination and Pap smear.

183
Findings
  • 27.8 of the subjects were positive for HPV
  • Three main areas of risk
  • Having multiple male sex partners
  • The partners level of promiscuity
  • The prevalence of HPV in the womans sexual pool
  • Black or Hispanic ethnicity
  • Currently not attending college

184
Other Findings
  • Living with persons who smoked increased the risk
    of HPV infection
  • Sex while intoxicated was a risk factor
  • Attending religious services frequently was
    associated with a lowered risk
  • Only vaginal sex was related to a higher
    incidence of infection

185
The Flexner Report
  • Abraham Flexner met with the leading faculty at
    the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
    to develop a model of medical education.
  • The model included the belief that a medical
    school should be a research-oriented, laboratory
    facility that devoted all of its energies to
    teaching and research, not to the practice of
    medicine.
  • He visited each of the 155 medical schools then
    in existence, comparing them with the model.

186
The Flexner Report
  • As a result of the Flexner report (1910), all but
    two African American medical schools were closed,
    and only one medical school for women survived.
  • As a result, white women and people of color were
    largely excluded from medical education for the
    first half of the 20th century.
  • Until the civil rights movement and the womens
    movement of the 1960s and 1970s, most physicians
    were white, male, and upper- or upper-middle
    class.

187
Types of Heath Care Delivery Systems
  • Universal Health Care
  • Socialized Medicine
  • Fee for Service

188
Paying for Medical Care in the U.S.
  • Private Health Insurance cited as the main
    reason for medical inflation, gives doctors and
    hospitals an incentive to increase costs.
  • Public Health Insurance projections call for
    Medicaid spending to double and Medicare spending
    to triple in the next few years.

189
The U.S. Health Care System
  • Health Maintenance Organizations provide total
    care with an emphasis on prevention.
  • Managed care monitors and controls health care
    providers' decisions, insurance company has the
    right to refuse to pay for treatment.

190
Increase in Cost of Health Care, 19702004
191
Persons Not Covered by Health Insurance, by State
192
Holistic and Alternative Medicine
  • Holistic medicine focuses on prevention of
    illness and disease and is aimed at treating the
    whole person rather than just the part or parts
    in which symptoms occur.
  • Alternative medicine includes healing practices
    inconsistent with dominant medical practice.

193
The Sick Role
  • The sick are not responsible for their condition.
  • The sick are temporarily exempt from their normal
    role obligations.
  • The sick must want to get well.
  • The sick must seek help from a medical
    professional to hasten their recovery.

194
Sociological Perspectives on Health and Medicine
195
Disability
  • Disability refers to a reduced ability to perform
    tasks one would normally do at a given stage of
    life and that may result in or discrimination.
  • Estimated 49.7 million people in the U.S. have
    one or more physical or mental disabilities.
  • Less than 15 of persons with a disability are
    born with it.
  • Accidents, disease, and war account for most
    disabilities in this country.

196
of U.S. Population With Disabilities
197
Americans with Disabilities Act
  • Protection from employment discrimination

198
Disabilities and Employment Status
199
Chapter 15
  • Population and urbanization

200
Changes in Population
  • Changes occur as a result of three processes
  • Fertility (births)
  • Mortality (deaths)
  • Migration

201
Demographic Transition Theory
  • Stage 1 Preindustrial Societies - little
    population growth, high birth rates offset by
    high death rates.
  • Stage 2 Early Industrialization - significant
    population growth, birth rates are relatively
    high, death rates decline.
  • Stage 3 Advanced Industrialization and
    Urbanization - very little population growth
    occurs, birth rates and death rates are low.
  • Stage 4 Postindustrialization - birth rates
    decline as more women are employed and raising
    children becomes more costly.

202
Demographic Transition Theory
203
Growth in the Worlds Population
204
Population
  • Worlds population of 6.5 billion in 2006 is
    increasing by more than 76 million people per
    year.
  • Between 2000 and 2030, almost all of the worlds
    population growth will occur in low-income
    countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
  • By 2025 more than 8 in 10 people will live in
    Africa, Asia or Latin America.

205
Almost all population growth over the next 20
years will occur in those nations least able to
afford this growth
  • 97 percent of the projected world population
    increase of 1.3 billion people will occur in less
    developed nations

206
Cultural norms, change and desired family size
  • Ghana 4.6 children per woman
  • Traditional role of women
  • Economic resource
  • Old age insurance
  • Europe 1.4 children per women
  • Womens social status similar to that of men
  • Government support (disability, health insurance,
    pensions)

207
Consequences for Europe include
  • Difficulty funding pensions
  • Need for immigrant labor
  • Nationalistic fears and anti-immigrant violence

208
What about population growth in the U.S?
  • Birth rates are around replacement level (low,
    but higher than those in Europe)
  • Birth rates are higher in lower income groups.
    As with Europe, much of this difference is
    explained by the changing role of women in the
    middle and upper middle classes.
  • Population continues to grow through immigration
  • One result of this pattern of growth will be an
    increasingly diverse society (perhaps becoming a
    multi-lingual society

209
Population Pyramid
  • A graphic representation of the distribution of a
    population by sex and age.

210
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211
Theories of Population Growth
  • The Malthusian Perspective
  • The Marxist Perspective
  • Demographic Transition Theory

212
Malthusian Perspective
  • If left unchecked, the population would exceed
    the available food supply.

213
Marxist Perspective
  • Using technology, food can be produced for a
    growing population.
  • Poverty is caused, not by overpopulation, but by
    expropriation of resources by the powerful
  • Overpopulation will lead to the eventual
    destruction of capitalism.
  • Workers will become dissatisfied and develop
    class-consciousness because of shared oppression.

214
The City
  • As recently as 200 years ago, only 3 of the
    worlds population lived in cities. Today, that
    figure is 50 and is expected to grow to two
    thirds of the worlds people by 2050.

215
Three Models of the City
216
Georg Simmel's View of City Life
  • Urban life is stimulating it shapes people's
    thoughts and actions.
  • Many urban residents avoid emotional involvement
    with each other and try to ignore events taking
    place around them.
  • Urban living can be liberating - people have
    opportunities for individualism and autonomy.

217
The diversity of the cityGans's Urban Villagers
  • Cosmopolites are students, artists, writers,
    musicians, and professionals who live in the city
    to be close to its cultural facilities.
  • Unmarried people and childless couples live in
    the city to be close to work and entertainment.
  • Ethnic villagers live in ethnically segregated
    neighborhoods.
  • The deprived are poor people with dim future
    prospects.
  • The trapped are downwardly mobile persons, older
    persons, and addicts who cannot escape the city.

218
Suburbs
  • Since World War II, the U.S. population has
    shifted as people moved to the suburbs.
  • Suburbanites rely on urban centers for employment
    but pay property taxes to suburban governments
    and school districts.

219
Conflict Perspective on City Growth
220
Conflict Perspective on Global Growth
221
The Worlds Ten Largest Metropolises
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