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Chapter Two

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Title: Chapter Two


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Chapter Two Speech Sounds
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  • As human beings we are capable of making all
    kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds
    have become units in the language system.
  • We can analyze speech sounds from various
    perspectives and the two major areas of study are
    phonetics and phonology.

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  • Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced,
    transmitted, and perceived.

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  • Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the
    production of speech sounds.
  • Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical
    properties of speech sounds.
  • Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned
    with the perception of speech sounds.

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  • Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and
    sound systems of languages.
  • It aims to discover the principles that govern
    the way sounds are organized in languages, and to
    explain the variations that occur.
  • In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an
    individual language, say English, in order to
    determine its phonological structure, i.e. which
    sound units are used and how they are put
    together.
  • Then we compare the properties of sound systems
    in different languages in order to make
    hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use
    of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to
    discover the rules that underlie the sound
    patterns of all languages.

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1. How speech sounds are made
  • 1.1 Speech organs

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Position of the vocal folds voiceless
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Position of the vocal folds voicing (initial
the widest aperture)
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Position of the vocal folds glottal stop
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1.2 The IPA
  • In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers Association was
    inaugurated by a small group of language teachers
    in France who had found the practice of phonetics
    useful in their teaching and wished to popularize
    their methods.
  • It was changed to its present title of the
    International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.

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  • One of the first activities of the Association
    was to produce a journal in which the contents
    were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
  • The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was
    first proposed by the Danish grammarian and
    phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886,
    and
  • the first version of the International Phonetic
    Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August
    1888.

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  • Its main principles were that
  • there should be a separate letter for each
    distinctive sound, and
  • that the same symbol should be used for that
    sound in any language in which it appears.
  • The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman
    alphabet letters as possible, using new letters
    and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
  • These principles continue to be followed today.

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  • The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (Revised to
    2005)

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2. Consonants and vowels
  • Consonants are produced by a closure in the
    vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked
    that air cannot escape without producing audible
    friction.
  • By contrast, a vowel is produced without such
    stricture so that air escapes in a relatively
    unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.

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  • The distinction between vowels and consonants
    lies in the obstruction of airstream.
  • As there is no obstruction of air in the
    production of vowels, the description of the
    consonants and vowels cannot be done along the
    same lines.

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2.1 Consonants
  • In the production of consonants at least two
    articulators are involved.
  • For example, the initial sound in bad involves
    both lips and its final segment involves the
    blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar
    ridge.
  • The categories of consonant, therefore, are
    established on the basis of several factors.

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  • The manner of articulation refers to ways in
    which articulation can be accomplished
  • the articulators may close off the oral tract for
    an instant or a relatively long period
  • they may narrow the space considerably or
  • they may simply modify the shape of the tract by
    approaching each other.

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  • Stop (or Plosive)
  • Oral Nasal
  • Fricative
  • (Median) Approximant
  • Lateral (Approximant)
  • Trill
  • Tap or Flap
  • Affricate

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  • The place of articulation refers to the point
    where a consonant is made.
  • Practically consonants may be produced at any
    place between the lips and the vocal folds.
  • Eleven places of articulation are distinguished
    on the IPA chart

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  • Bilabial
  • Labiodental
  • Dental
  • Alveolar
  • Postalveolar
  • Retroflex
  • Palatal
  • Velar
  • Uvular
  • Pharyngeal
  • Glottal

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2.2 Vowels
  • Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel
    diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel
    qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and
    unchanging, intended to provide a frame of
    reference for the description of the actual
    vowels of existing languages.

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Jones An Outline of English Phonetics (1918)
Black IPA Red English
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  • The problematic area is that the initial sound in
    hot gives little turbulence, depending on how
    forcefully it is said, and in yet and wet the
    initial segments are obviously vowels.
  • To get out of this problem, the usual solution is
    to say that these segments are neither vowels nor
    consonants but midway between the two categories.
    For this purpose, the term semi-vowel is often
    used.

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  • Languages also frequently make use of a
    distinction between vowels where the quality
    remains constant throughout the articulation and
    those where there is an audible change of
    quality.
  • The former are known as pure or monophthong
    vowels and the latter, vowel glides.
  • If a single movement of the tongue is involved,
    the glides are called diphthongs.

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  • A double movement produces a triphthong, which is
    a glide from one vowel to another and then to a
    third, all produced rapidly and without
    interruption.
  • They are really diphthongs followed by the schwa
    ?, found in English words like wire wa?? and
    tower ta??.

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2.3 The sounds of English
  • Received Pronunciation (RP)
  • General American (GA)
  • English consonants

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  • The consonants of English can be described in the
    following manner
  • p voiceless bilabial stop
  • b voiced bilabial stop
  • s voiceless alveolar fricative
  • z voiced alveolar fricative

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English vowels
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  • The description of English vowels needs to
    fulfill four basic requirements
  • the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)
  • the position of the highest part of the tongue
    (front, central, back)
  • the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs.
    lax or long vs. short), and
  • lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).

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  • We can now describe the English vowels in this
    way
  • ?? high front tense unrounded vowel
  • ? high back lax rounded vowel
  • ? mid central lax unrounded vowel
  • ? low back lax rounded vowel

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3. From phonetics to phonology
  • Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal
    organs do not move from one sound segment to the
    next in a series of separate steps. Rather,
    sounds continually show the influence of their
    neighbors.
  • For example, map, lamb.

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3.1 Coarticulation
  • When such simultaneous or overlapping
    articulations are involved, we call the process
    coarticulation.
  • If the sound becomes more like the following
    sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as
    anticipatory coarticulation.
  • If the sound shows the influence of the preceding
    sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is
    the case of map.

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  • The fact that the vowel ? in lamb has some
    quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we
    call nasalization.
  • To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we
    add a diacritic to the top of the symbol ?, as
    ??.

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  • p is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in
    speak.
  • This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus
    indicated by the diacritic h, as ph, whereas
    the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as
    p.

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  • When we use a simple set of symbols in our
    transcription, it is called a broad
    transcription.
  • The use of more specific symbols to show more
    phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow
    transcription.
  • Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both
    forms in square brackets .

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3.2 Phonemes
  • Phonology is not specifically concerned with the
    physical properties of the speech production
    system.
  • Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ
    in the way they are pronounced while phonologists
    are interested in the patterning of such sounds
    and the rules that underlie such variations.

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  • Crystal Phonological analysis relies on the
    principle that certain sounds cause changes in
    the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other
    sounds do not.
  • Minimal pairs test
  • Phonemes

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  • The word phoneme simply refers to a unit of
    explicit sound contrast the existence of a
    minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status
    to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.
  • By selecting one type of sound instead of another
    we can distinguish one word from another.

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  • Languages differ in the selection of contrastive
    sounds.
  • In English, the distinction between aspirated
    ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic.
  • In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/
    and /ph/ is phonemic.

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  • By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed
    between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic
    transcriptions are placed between square brackets
    ( ).
  • In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions
    represent the broad transcriptions.

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3.3 Allophones
  • p, ph are two different phones and are variants
    of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme
    are called allophones of the same phoneme.
  • In this case the allophones are said to be in
    complementary distribution because they never
    occur in the same context
  • p occurs after s while ph occurs in other
    places.

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  • /p/ ? p / s _____
  • ph elsewhere
  • This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation
    of phonemes in different positions is called
    allophony or allophonic variation.

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  • Velarization clear l and dark l
  • /?/ ? ? / _____ V
  • ? / V _____
  • Think about tell and telling!

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  • Phonetic similarity the allophones of a phoneme
    must bear some phonetic resemblance.
  • Free variants and free variation

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4. Phonological processes, phonological rules and
distinctive features
  • 4.1 Assimilation

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  • Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are
    all instances of assimilation, a process by which
    one sound takes on some or all the
    characteristics of a neighboring sound.
  • If a following sound is influencing a preceding
    sound, we call it regressive assimilation.
  • The converse process, in which a preceding sound
    is influencing a following sound, is known as
    progressive assimilation.

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English Fricative Devoicing
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  • /v/ ? f /z/ ? s etc.
  • voiced fricative ? voiceless / ____ voiceless
  • Nasalization rule
  • -nasal ? nasal / ____ nasal
  • Dentalization rule
  • -dental ? dental / ____ dental
  • Velarization rule
  • -velar ? velar / ____ velar

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4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere
Condition
  • a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a
    yellow rug, a white house
  • an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old
    lady
  • Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule

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Plurals in English
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  • a. The ? appears after voiceless sounds.
  • b. The ? appears after voiced sounds.
  • c. The ?? appears after sibilants.
  • /?/ ? ? / voice, C _____ (Devoicing)
  • ? ? ? / sibilant _____ ? (Epenthesis)

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Rule ordering
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  • The Elsewhere Condition
  • The more specific rule applies first.

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4.3 Distinctive features
  • The idea of Distinctive Features was first
    developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the
    1940s as a means of working out a set of
    phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture
    particular aspects of language sounds.
  • Since then several versions have been suggested.

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  • Some of the major distinctions include
    consonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced.
  • The feature consonantal can distinguish between
    consonants and vowels, so all consonants are
    consonantal and all vowels consonantal.
  • sonorant distinguishes between what we call
    obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) and
    sonorants (all other consonants and vowels), with
    obstruents being sonorant and others
    sonorant.
  • nasal and voiced of course distinguish nasal
    (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds
    respectively.

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  • These are known as binary features because we can
    group them into two categories one with this
    feature and the other without.
  • Binary features have two values or specifications
    denoted by    and    so voiced obstruents
    are marked voiced and voiceless obstruents are
    marked voiced.

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  • The place features are not binary features they
    are divided up into four values
  • PLACE Labial
  • PLACE Coronal
  • PLACE Dorsal
  • PLACE Radical
  • They are often written in shorthand forms as
  • Labialp
  • Coronalp
  • Dorsalp
  • Radicalp

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  • A useful feature for consonants not found here is
    spread (for spread glottis), which
    distinguishes between aspirated and
    unaspirated voiceless obstruents.
  • Aspirated sounds are spread and unaspirated
    sounds are spread.
  • Now we can represent the rule that governs the
    unaspiration of /p/ after s in terms of
    features

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  • This is a more general rule, which also applies
    to /t/ and /k/. It means that /p, t, k/
    (voiced, cont) are all unaspirated
    (spread) after s and aspirated (spread)
    in all other positions.

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Past tense forms in English
  • stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed,
    reached
  • stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed,
    bridged
  • steamed, stunned, pulled
  • played, flowed, studied
  • wanted, located, decided, guided

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  • The regular past tense form in English is
    pronounced as t when the word ends with a
    voiceless consonant, d when it ends with a
    voiced sound, and ?d when it ends with t or
    d.

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5. Suprasegmentals
  • Suprasegmental features are those aspects of
    speech that involve more than single sound
    segments.
  • The principal suprasegmentals are

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5.1 The syllable structure
  • s
  • Onset Rime
  • Nucleus
    Coda
  • k r æ
    k t

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  • Open syllable bar, tie
  • Closed syllable bard, tied
  • English Syllable (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)
  • Chinese syllable (C)V(C)
  • Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)
  • When there is a choice as to where to place a
    consonant, it is put into the onset rather than
    the coda.

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5.2 Stress
  • Stress refers to the degree of force used in
    producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised
    vertical line is often used just before the
    syllable it relates to.
  • A basic distinction is made between stressed and
    unstressed syllables, the former being more
    prominent than the latter, which means that
    stress is a relative notion.

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  • At the word level, it only applies to words with
    at least two syllables.
  • At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be
    said to be stressed relative to other words in
    the sentence.

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Changing English Stress Pattern
  • Becoming norm
  • inTEGral
  • coMMUNal
  • forMIDable
  • conTROVersy
  • Considered conservative
  • INtegral
  • COMMunal
  • FORmidable
  • CONtroversy

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RP vs. GA
  • GA
  • LABoratory
  • deBRIS
  • gaRAGE
  • RP
  • laBORatory
  • DEBris
  • GARage

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V vs. N
  • Verb
  • conVICT
  • inSULT
  • proDUCE
  • reBEL
  • Noun
  • CONvict
  • INsult
  • PROduce
  • REbel

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Compound vs. Phrase
Compound Phrase
  • black BOARD
  • black BIRD
  • BLACKboard
  • BLACKbird

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Primary vs. Secondary Stress
  • epiphenomenal
  • unsatisfactory
  • discrimination
  • standardization
  • communication
  • industrialization

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Sentence Stress
  • John bought a red car.
  • JOHN bought a red car.
  • John BOUGHT a red car.
  • John bought a RED car.
  • John bought a red CAR.

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5.3 Intonation
  • Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring
    fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a
    set of relatively consistent meanings, either on
    single words or on groups of words of varying
    length.
  • For example, the fall-rise tone in English
    typically involves the meaning of a contrast
    within a limited set of items stated explicitly
    or implicitly.

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  • (Isnt her name Mary?) No / ? Jenny
  • The old man didnt come / whereas the ? young man
    / did come and actually enjoyed himself
  • ? I didnt do it

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5.4 Tone
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