Title: Recent Developments in Wisdom Literature The Literary Character of Qoheleth
1Recent Developments in Wisdom LiteratureThe
Literary Character of Qoheleth
2Literary Structures of Wisdom Texts
- A much discussed issue that continues into the
present is that of the literary structures of the
different books of the wisdom corpus - Proverbs, Job, Qoheleth, Ben Sira, and the Wisdom
of Solomon
3Literary Structures of Wisdom Texts
- Prior to the 1980s, most wisdom texts were viewed
as compilations of a variety of sources that were
redacted together over a period of centuries. - For example, the Book of Job was divided into
several distinct, originally unrelated units
the prose narrative, the speeches of Job and the
Three Friends with the troublesome literary
character of the third cycle of debate, the Hymn
on the Search for Wisdom (chp. 28), the Oath of
Innocence (29-32), the Elihu Speeches (2-37), and
the Speeches from the Whirlwind and Jobs
responses in 38 through the end of 42. Georg
Fohrers commentary on Das Buch Hiob is a good
example of older scholarship. Among his
conclusions was his view that there originally
was only one Yahweh Speech and one response from
Job. Thus, he removed the speeches describing
Behemoth and Leviathan, and he regarded them as
later additions.
4The Literary Structure of Job
- Since the 1980s, however, there has been a
decided shift away from this type of redaction
criticism in the effort to read the Book of Job
as a single unit (Norman Habel, The Book of Job),
or at least, as Carol Newsom argues in her
commentary in the New Interpreters Bible, a unit
with only limited redaction that may have
included the addition of the Elihu speeches.
5Other Wisdom Texts
- The same debate has developed in interpreting the
other Books. - Ben Siras division into parts is noticed by the
conclusions of each in which a creation hymn is
inserted. This underlines the major theme of the
Book. - The Wisdom of Solomon is divided into two
sections involving immortality and the exodus.
6- I. The praises of wisdom (11-111)
- A. Immortality is the reward of wisdom
(11-621The Book of Eschatology) - 1. Exhortation to justice (11-15)
- 2. The wicked invite death (116-224)
- 3. The hidden counsels of God (31-420)
- 2'. The final judgment (51-23)
- 1'. Exhortation to seek Wisdom (61-21)
- B. The nature of wisdom and Solomon's quest for
her (622-111The Book of Wisdom) - 1. Introduction (622-25)
- 2. Solomon's speech (71-821)
- 3. Solomon's prayer for Wisdom (91-18)
- God's fidelity to his people in the exodus
(112-1922The Book of History) - A. Transitional section Wisdom saves her own
(101-111) - B. Introductory narrative (112-4)
- C. Theme Israel is benefited by the very
things that punish Egypt (115) - D. Illustration of the theme in five
antithetical diptychs (116-1922) - 1. Water from the rock contrasted to the plague
of the Nile (116-14) - 2. Quail instead of the plague of little animals
(1115-1615) - (Digression critique of pagan religions,
131-1519)
7The Genre of Qoheleth
- 1. Sayings Collection (Walter Zimmerli)
- 2. Autobiography or First Person Testament
(Addison Wright, Leo Perdue). - Thus, is Qoheleth a compilation of sayings
without any observable structure and thus
contains often contradictory sayings? Or is it a
tightly woven literary unit with a coherent
theology? -
8Qoheleth as a Sayings Collection
- Sayings Collections in the Bible and the Ancient
Near East - The Book of Proverbs consists of seven separate
collections plus a concluding poem on the Wise
Woman (cf. Provs. 1, 8, and 9). - Mealîm, ?????, collections, the plural of
the Hebrew singular (saying, maal, ???), are
an assemblage of various wisdom forms placed
together on the basis of formal and/or thematic
features. These proverbial collections were
designed to stimulate the imagination of the
hearer allowing entrance into a poetic world of
aesthesis that was then to be learned and
embodied in the behavior of the one seeking
wisdom. This same world of beauty and balance
describes the nature of the cosmic world of
God's creation.
9The Seven Collections of Proverbs
- Each of the seven collections is introduced by a
title or superscription - 11--milê elomo ???? ????
- 101 milê elomo ???? ????
- 2217--dibrê hakamîm ????? ????
- 242 ---gam-elleh hakamîm ????? ???- ??
- 251---gam-elleh mile elomo aer hetiqû
anê hezqîyyâ melek-yehûdâ - ???? ???? ???- ??
- ????? ????
- ????? ???
- 301dibrê agûr ???? ????
- 311dibre lemûel ????? ????
10Collections Attributed to Solomon
- Of the seven collections, three are
identified with Solomon (11 101 251). These
three are called the Wisdom Sayings of Solomon
(the milê elomo see 1 Kgs. 512 Solomons
3000 wisdom sayings, Ezek. 1222f., Hab. 26,
Prov. 116, Ps. 495, and 782). These three
collections contribute to the tradition of
Solomon as the wise king (see also 1 Kgs.
59-14, 521, 104, 1023, Qoheleth, Sir.
4712-17, and the Wisdom of Solomon, especially
chaps. 7-9). Solomon is the one to whom the
collections are dedicated. He became patron
saint of the sages with the narratives in DH
portraying the wise king, par excellence. Thus,
the collections support the tradition of Solomon
as the wise king who was seen as the embodiment
of wisdom (at least in the sapiential view of
this king and its tradition, see I Kgs. 3-10).
11The Sayings of Ahiqar
- 1. See H. L. Ginsberg, The Words of Ahiqar,
ANET, 427-430 - 2. See Ingo Kottspieper, TUAT, and Die Sprache
der Ahiqarsprüche. BZAW 194 Berlin Walter de
Gruyter, 1990 - 3. See James M. Lindenberger, The Aramaic
Proverbs of Ahiqar. Baltimore John Hopkins
University Press, 1983 - 4. Compare Akkadian Proverbs, Lambert, BWL
-
12Ahiqar
- 1. An Assyrian document dating somewhere in the
7th to 6th century, B. C. - 2. The work consists of two parts the story of
Ahiqar and a collection of over a hundred
sayings, riddles, fables, and instructions. - 3. The story tells of Ahiqar, a wise scribe and
counselor to the kings of Assyria. Advanced in
years and without an heir, he decides to adopt
his nephew Nadin and teach him all of his wisdom.
The young man is educated and eventually takes
his uncles place in the court of Esarhaddon.
Nadin plots to discredit him and convinces the
king that he is trying to overthrow the king.
Angry, the king orders Ahiqar killed, but the
offer sent to kill him is his old friend and
rescues him from the death sentence. A slave is
killed in the place of Ahiqar. While the end of
the story is lost, it presumably tells of the
restoration of Ahiqar and the punishment of
Nadin. - 4. The collection of sayings deals with a wide
range of topics family discipline, respect for
the king, prudent speech, righteous behavior. - 5. The Aramaic text is a single papyrus ms.
poorly preserved. It was discovered in
Elephantine. - 6. The narrative is dated by the author to
the reign of Esarhaddon (reigned 681-669 B. C.
E.). The provenance was likely Mesopotamia and
written by an Aramean Scribe, but likely a couple
of centuries later. - 7. Theologically, the divine power consists
of ANE gods, not. El is most frequently
mentioned, then Shamash, Wisdom, Shamayn. Saying
13 seems to be a hymn to Wisdom and is similar to
Prov. 822-31.
13Q in the Synoptic Gospels
- I. Q (Quelle) is a hypothetical collection of
the sayings of Jesus that predates the written
Gospels of Matthew and Luke - A. The Two Source Hypothesis argues that Matthew
and Luke independently used Mark and Q in the
construction of their Gospels, adding M and L
materials - themselves in constructing their texts.
- B. The text (see Handout).
- C. The nearly verbatim agreement of Matthew and
Luke in reproducing such Q pericopae as Luke
37-9 1119-20, 24-26, 31-32 and 1334-35 and
strong similarities of many other passages as
well as the significant order in the Q texts in L
and M indicate that they probably used a written
version, rather than an oral tradition, of Q. - D. There may be a number of other texts that
stylistically are similar to Q (Luke 624-26
Matt. 541 Luke 634-35b 961-62 1127-28
1213-14, 16-21 158-10 1720-21, 28-29) and
perhaps were a part of a more expanded Luke. - E. Thus Q is approximately 4,000 words.
- F. The genre of Q has been described as a
prophetic book (M. Sato, R. Horsley) and a
sayings of the sages (J. Robinson). It likely
began as an ancient Near Eastern type of
instruction and became through redaction
something like a proto-biography. No passion
story and no indication that Q understood Jesus
death as redemptive. Its Christology is closer
to the association of Jesus with heavenly Wisdom
and with the Son of Man title.
14Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt 1513-14
- 13. Every plant which my heavenly Father did not
plant will be uprooted - 14. Let them alone guides of the blind are
themselves blind. And if a blind man leads a
blind man, both will fall into a pit.
- Luke 639-40
- 39. Surely a blind man cannot lead a blind man?
Will they not both fall into a pit?
15Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt. 1037-39
- 37. Whoever loves father and mother more than me
is not worthy of me and whoever loves son or
daughter more than me is not worthy of me - 38. And whoever does not take his cross and
follow me is not worthy of me. - 39. Whoever finds his life will lose it, and he
who loses his life for my sake will find it.
- Luke 1426-27
- 26. If any one comes to me and does not hate his
own father and mother and wife and children and
brothers and sisters, and indeed even his own
life, he cannot be my disciple. - 27. Whoever does not bear his own cross and come
after me cannot be my disciple. - 1733
- Whoever seeks to gain his life will lose it, but
whoever loses his life will keep it.
16Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt. 1024-25
- 24. A disciple is not above the teacher, nor a
servant above his master - 25. It is enough for the disciple to be like his
teacher, and the servant like his master
- Luke 640
- A disciple is not above his teacher, but every
one when he is full trained will be like his
teacher.
17Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt. 1116-17
- 16. Now to what shall I compare this generation?
It is like children seated in the agoras and
addressing their playmates. - 17. We piped to you, and you did not dance
- We sang a dirge, and you did not mourn.
- Luke 731-35
- 31. To what then shall I compare the people of
this generation, and what are they life? 32.
They are like children seated in the agora and
addressing one another, - We piped to you, and you did not dance,
- We sang a dirge, and you did not weep.
18Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt. 5 44
- Love your enemies and pray for those who
persecute you.
- Luke 27-28
- 27. Love your enemies, do good to those who hate
you, - 28. Bless those who curse you, pray for those
who mistreat you
19Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt. 712
- So whatever you wish that people would do to you,
do also to them
- Luke 631
- And as you wish that people would do to do, do so
to them.
20Q Wisdom Sayings
- Matt. 53, 6, 4.
- Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the
reign of heaven. - Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for
righteousness, for they shall be filled. - Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be
comforted.
- Luke 620-21
- Blessed are you poor, for yours is the reign of
God - Blessed are you that hunger now, for you shall be
filled. - Blessed are you that weep now, for you shall
laugh.
21Nag Hammadi Library
- The Nag Hammadi Library, a collection of thirteen
ancient codices containing over fifty texts, was
discovered in upper Egypt in 1945. This immensely
important discovery includes a large number of
primary Gnostic scriptures -- texts once thought
to have been entirely destroyed during the early
Christian struggle to define "orthodoxy" --
scriptures such as the Gospel of Thomas, the
Gospel of Philip, and the Gospel of Truth. - The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi
library, completed in the 1970's, has provided
impetus to a major re-evaluation of early
Christian history and the nature of Gnosticism.
22Gnosticism and the Nag Hammadi Library
- Among these early followers of Christ, it appears
that an elite group delineated themselves from
the greater household of the Church by claiming
not simply a belief in Christ and his message,
but a "special witness" or revelatory experience
of the divine. It was this experience, this
gnosis, which--so these Gnostics claimed--set the
true follower of Christ apart from his fellows.
Stephan Hoeller explains that these Gnostic
Christians held a "conviction that direct,
personal and absolute knowledge of the authentic
truths of existence is accessible to human
beings, and, moreover, that the attainment of
such knowledge must always constitute the supreme
achievement of human life."
23Gnosticism and the Nag Hammadi Library
- These thirteen papyrus codices containing
fifty-two sacred texts are the long lost "Gnostic
Gospels", a last extant testament of what
orthodox Christianity perceived to be its most
dangerous and insidious challenge, the feared
opponent that the Patristic heresiologists had
reviled under many different names, but most
commonly as Gnosticism. The discovery of these
documents has radically revised our understanding
of Gnosticism and the early Christian church in
the first and second centuries. - Valentinus of Rome (mid first century) was a
prominent Christian who may have stood for
election as Bishop. Yet by the end of his life,
he was branded a heretic. -
24Teachings of Gnosticism
- Gnosticism asserts that "direct, personal and
absolute knowledge of the authentic truths of
existence is accessible to human beings," and
that the attainment of such knowledge is the
supreme achievement of human life. Gnosis,
remember, is not a rational, propositional,
logical understanding, but a knowing acquired by
experience. - Primary among all the revelatory perceptions a
Gnostic might reach was the profound awakening
that came with knowledge that something within
him was uncreated. The Gnostics called this
"uncreated self" the divine seed, the pearl, the
spark of knowing consciousness, intelligence,
light. And this seed of intellect was the
self-same substance of God, it was man's
authentic reality it was the glory of humankind
and the divine alike.
25Gnostic Teachings
- The creator god, the one who claimed in evolving
orthodox dogma to have made man, and to own him,
the god who would have man contingent upon him,
born ex nihilo by his will, was a lying demon and
not God at all. Gnostics called him by many names
-- many of them deprecatory -- names like
"Saklas", the blind one "Samael", god of the
blind or "the Demiurge", the lesser power. - Elaine Pagels "to know oneself, at the deepest
level, is simultaneously to know God this is the
secret of gnosis.... Self-knowledge is knowledge
of God the self and the divine are identical."
26Gnostic Teachings
- One group of gnostic sources claims to have
received a secret tradition from Jesus through
James and through Mary Magdalene who the
Gnostics revered as consort to Jesus. Members of
this group prayed to both the divine Father and
Mother - From Thee, Father, and through Thee, Mother, the
two immortal names, Parents of the divine being,
and thou, dweller in heaven, humanity, of the
mighty name... - In many of the Nag Hammadi texts God is imaged
not just as a duality, or d, but as a unity of
masculine and feminine elements.
27Gnostic Teachings Mary Magdalene
- Gospel of Philip relates
- "...the companion of the Savior is Mary
Magdalene. But Christ loved her more than all the
disciples, and used to kiss her often on her
mouth. The rest of the disciples were offended...
They said to him, "Why do you love her more than
all of us? the Savior answered and said to them,
"Why do I not love you as I love her?"
28Gnostic Teachings The Five Sacraments
- Gospel of Phillip Teaches
- five great sacraments or mysteries "a baptism
and a chrism, and a eucharist, and a redemption,
and a bridal chamber. Whether this ultimate
sacrament of the bridal chamber was a ritual
enacted by a man and women, an allegorical term
for a mystical experience, or a union of both, we
do not know. Only hints are given in Gnostic
texts about what this sacrament might be - Christ came to rectify the separation...and join
the two components and to give life unto those
who had died by separation and join them
together. Now a woman joins with her husband in
the bridal chamber, and those who have joined
in the bridal chamber will not reseparate
29The Coptic Gospel of Thomas
- THE GOSPEL OF THOMAS Introduced by HELMUT
KOESTER - Translated by THOMAS O. LAMBDIN
- Introduction to the Gospel of Thomas
- A collection of traditional sayings of Jesus.
These sayings, or small groups of sayings (the
numeration of the 114 sayings is not found in the
manuscript, but is followed by most scholars
today) are introduced in most instances by "Jesus
said (to them)," sometimes by a question or a
statement of the disciples. Only in one instance
(13) is a saying expanded into a longer discourse
between Jesus and the disciples. The sayings
preserved in The Gospel of Thomas are of several
types wisdom sayings (proverbs), parables,
eschatological sayings (prophecies), and rules
for the community. They appear in this document
in arrangement that does not reveal any overall
plan of composition. On occasion, small groups of
sayings are kept together by similarity in form
or by catchword association.
30Coptic Gospel of ThomasIntroduction
- The Coptic Gospel of Thomas was translated from
the Greek. Fragments of this gospel in the
original Greek version are extant in the
Oxyrhynchus Papyri 1, 654 and 655, which had been
discovered and published at the beginning of this
century, but were identified as parts of The
Gospel of Thomas only after the discovery of the
Coptic Nag Hammadi library. The first of these
Greek papyri conta-is sayings 26-30, 77, 31-33
(in this order!), the other two the sayings 1-7
and 36-40, respectively. At least one of these
Greek fragments comes from a manuscript that was
written before 200 C.E. thus the Greek version
of this gospel was used in Egypt as early as the
second century.
31Coptic Gospel of Thomas
- The authorship of this gospel is attributed to
Didymos Judas Thomas, that is, Judas "the twin"
(both the Aramaic thomas and the Greek didymos
mean "twin"). In the Syrian church, (Judas)
Thomas was known as the brother of Jesus who
founded the churches of the East, particularly of
Edessa (in a somewhat later tradition, he even
travels to India). Other Christian writings of
the eastern churches have been attributed to the
same apostle to these belong the Acts of Thomas
and most likely also The Book of Thomas, which
was discovered as part of the Nag Hammadi library
(11,7). The latter writing, as well as The Gospel
of Thomas, were most likely written in Syria.
32Coptic Gospel of Thomas
- A large number of the sayings of The Gospel of
Thomas have parallels in the gospels of the New
Testament, in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew,
Mark, and Luke), as well as the Gospel of John
(parallels with the latter are especially
striking cf., e.g., sayings 13, 19, 24, 38, 49,
92). Some of the sayings are known to occur also
in noncanonical gospels, especially in the Gospel
According to the Hebrews (cf. saying 2) and the
Gospel of the Egyptians (cf. saying 22), which
are both attested for the second century by
Clement of Alexandria (floruit 180-200). The
Gospel of Thomas almost always appears to have
preserved a more original form of the traditional
saying (in a few instances, where this is not the
case, the Coptic translation seems to have been
influenced by the translator's knowledge of the
New Testament gospels), or presents versions
which are independently based on more original
forms. More original and shorter forms are
especially evident in the parables of Thomas (cf.
sayings 8, 9, 57, 63, 64, 65, 96, cf. 109). -
33Coptic Gospel of Thomas
- The Gospel of Thomas is more akin to one of the
sources of the canonical gospels, namely the
so-called Synoptic Sayings Source (often called
"Q" from the German word Quelle, "source"), which
was used by both Matthew and Luke. Indeed, many
of the sayings found in our document were also
parts of this source of the gospels of the New
Testament. On the other hand, The Gospel of
Thomas also contains quite different older
sayings, paralleled in the Gospel of John, in
Mark 421-25, and even in I Corinthians (cf.
saying 17 with I Co 29). Moreover, the sayings
about the future coming of the Son of Man, so
characteristic for "Q" (cf. Lk 128, 10 1722,
24, 26), are completely missing. The Gospel of
Thomas is, therefore, a closely related but
independent collection of sayings. In its most
original form, it may well date from the first
century (the middle of the first century is
usually considered the best date for the
composition of "Q").
34Coptic Gospel of Thomas
- In the further history and growth of The Gospel
of Thomas, this wisdom interpretation of the
sayings of Jesus is more clearly developed under
the influence of gnostic theology, though it is
not possible to ascribe the work to any
particular gnostic school or sect. The theme of
recognizing oneself is further elaborated in
sayings (cf. 50, 51) which speak of the knowledge
of one's divine origin which even Adam did not
share, although "he came into being from a great
power" (saying 85). Salvation is obtained in
stripping off everything that is of this world
(cf. sayings 21a, 37, 56). The disciples must
"pass by" the present corruptible existence
(saying 42). The existence of the ideal gnostic
disciple is characterized by the term "solitary
one," which describes the one who has left behind
everything that binds human beings to the world
(cf. sayings 16, 23, 30, and 76). Even women can
obtain this goal, if they achieve the "maleness"
of the solitary existence (saying 114).
35Coptic Gospel of Thomas
- THE GOSPEL OF THOMAS (This is a partial text
1132,10-51, 28) - These are the secret sayings which the living
Jesus spoke and which Didymos Judas Thomas wrote
down. - (1) And he said, "Whoever finds the
interpretation of these sayings will not
experience death." - (2) Jesus said, "Let him who seeks continue
seeking until he finds. When he finds, he will
become troubled. When he becomes troubled, he
will be astonished, and he will rule over the
all."
36(4) Jesus said, "The man old in days will not
hestitate to ask a small child seven days old
about the place of life, and he will live. For
many who are first will become last, and they
will become one and the same." (6) His disciples
questioned him and said to him, "Do you want us
to fast? How shall we pray? Shall we give alms?
What diet shall we observe? Jesus said, "Do not
tell lies, and do not do what you hate, for all
things are plain in the sight of heaven. For
nothing hidden will not become manifest, and
nothing covered will remain without being
uncovered." (8) And he said, "The man is like a
wise fisherman who cast his net into the sea and
drew it up from the sea full of small fish. Among
them the wise fisherman found a fine large fish.
He threw all the small fish back into the sea and
chose the large fish without difficulty. Whoever
has ears to hear, let him hear." (9) Jesus said,
"Now the sower went out, took a handful (of
seeds), and scattered them. Some fell on the
road the birds came and gathered them up. Others
fell on rock, did not take root in the soil, and
did not produce ears. And others fell on thorns
they choked the seed(s) and worms ate them. And
others fell on the good soil and it produced good
fruit it bore sixty per measure and a hundred
and twenty per measure." (20) The disciples said
to Jesus, "Tell us what the kingdom of heaven is
like." He said to them, "It is like a mustard
seed. It is the smallest of all seeds. But when
it falls on tilled soil, it produces a great
plant and becomes a shelter for birds of the
sky."
37(22) Jesus saw infants being suckled. He said to
his disciples, "These infants being suckled are
like those who enter the kingdom." They said to
him, "Shall we then, as children, enter the
kingdom?" (26) Jesus said, "You see the mote in
your brother's eye, but you do not see the beam
in your own eye. When you cast the beam out of
your own eye, then you will see clearly to cast
the mote from your brother's eye." (31) Jesus
said, "No prophet is accepted in his own village
no physician heals those who know him." (32)
Jesus said,"A city being built on a high mountain
and fortified cannot fall, 'nor can it be
hidden." (35) Jesus said, "It is not possible
for anyone to enter the house of a strong man and
take it by force unless he binds his hands (39)
Jesus said, "The pharisees and the scribes have
taken the keys of knowledge (gnosis) and hidden
them. They themselves have not entered, nor have
they allowed to enter those who wish to. You,
however, be as wise as serpents and as innocent
as doves." (50) Jesus said, "If they say to you,
'Where did you come from', say to them, 'We came
from the light, the place where the light came
into being on its own accord and established
itself and became manifest through their
image'. If they say to you, 'Is it you?', say,
'We are its children, and we are the elect of the
living father.' If they ask you, "What is the
sign of your father in you?', say to them, 'It is
movement and repose.' "
38(51) His disciples said to him,"When will the
repose of the dead come about, and when will the
new world come?" He said to them, "What you look
forward to has already come, but you do not
recognize it." (54) Jesus said, "Blessed are the
poor, for yours is the kingdom of heaven." (55)
Jesus said, "Whoever does not hate his father and
his mother cannot become a disciple to me. And
whoever does not hate his brothers and sisters
and take up his cross in my way will not be
worthy of me." (63) Jesus said, There was a rich
man who had much money. He said, 'I shall put my
money to use so that I may sow, reap, plant, and
fill my storehouse with produce, with the result
that shall lack nothing.' Such were his
intentions, but that same night he died. Let him
who has ears hear." (77) Jesus said, "It is I
who am the light which is above them all. It is I
who am the all . From me did the all come forth,
and unto me did the all extend. Split a piece of
wood, and I am there. Lift up the stone, and you
will find me there." (114) Simon Peter said to
them, "Let Mary leave us, for women are not
worthy of life." Jesus said,"I myself shall lead
her in order to make her male, so that she too
may become a living spirit resembling you males.
For every woman who will make herself male will
enter the kingdom of heaven."
39Greek Sayings Lists (Logia)
- Gnomologia (or logoi sophon, l??oi s?f??) were
collections of sayings existing either as
independent assemblages or insertions into other
texts of various kinds. There were, more or less,
loose connections or groupings of individual
sayings based on subject matter and tense.
Wilson does point to a more formal literary
structure, suggesting the author exercised an
ability to organize and arrange the material into
a more coherent whole. This view has priority
over the alternative one of loosely connected
sayings. Thus there is a prologue (vv. 1-2), and
epilogue (vv. 228-230), and thematic clusters.
The collections appear to have had a variety of
purposes and may be suitable for any number of
contexts. Overall, however, they are an
aggregation of basic human wisdom teachings about
the order of things and human existence and
present themselves as the compilation of the
teaching of a father, friend, or the teacher of a
son, friend, or student. These sayings purport
to gather together the wisdom of the ancient
sages. The ultimate aim for the sage is paideia,
or a higher principle that underlies the origins
of and provides the essence of virtue. This
paideia is divine, and for this author consists
of the ?e?u ß???e?µata (theou bouleumata
counsels of God) and d??a??s???? µ?st???a
(dikaiosunas mustaria mystery of
righteousness).
40Sentences of Sextus
- This collection of 451 sayings, comprised of a
variety of specific forms, was probably compiled
in Egypt. It was well-known among Christians,
particularly after the fourth century as a result
of the Latin translation of Rufinus. Although the
author's identity as Sextus has not finally been
demonstrated, it appears certain that the editor,
whoever he was, was a Christian. - The Basic outlook of this collection is best
summarized by the phrase "mild asceticism." The
Greek and English versions appear on facing
pages. - It was published by Scholars Press in 1981.
- Saying 1 A faithful man is an elect man.
- Saying 124 Ask God for whatever you cannot get
from man. - Saying 260 Strive to be a public benefactor to
humanity. - Saying 451 Do not dare to speak about God to an
undisciplined soul. - See Handout
41The Genre of Qoheleth First Person Testaments
- In this genre, a first person narrator tells the
story of personal experience and relates it to
one or more sapiential virtues. Upon this
experience, the audience of students is
instructed. This form is frequently found in the
literature of the ancient Near East. There are
three literary types found in Egypt that provide
important form critical and thematic comparisons
to Qoheleth The Songs of the Harper, Grave
Inscriptions, and Royal Testaments of deceased
kings There are several examples of first person
narratives in Israelite and Jewish wisdom texts
Ps. 73, Prov. 43-9, 2430-34, and Sir. 3316-18,
etc.
42Rhetorical Structure
- Frame 11-11 and 119-1214
- Introduction Conclusion
- ll Title 129-14 Epilogue
- l2 Theme Breath of breaths, says Q. All
if Breath 128 Theme Breath of Breath
of breaths. All is Breath. - 13 Central Question "What remains to a
person from all the labor at which he/she toils
under the sun?" - l4-11 Two Stanza Poem 117-l27 Two
Stanza Poem - Cosmology (14-7) Anthropology
Carpe Diem (117-10) Anthropology (toil 1
8-11) Cosmology and
Death (l2l-8) - Internal Structure 112-116
- I. 1 12-519. Cosmology, Anthropology, and the
Moral Order Human Activity - Key refrain Breath (and a Striving
after lifes breath). - 1 12-18. Two-fold Introduction to
sections I and II - A. l12-226 Solomon's Accomplishments
- Carpe Diem Conclusion (224-26)
- B. 31-15 Time (human toil and divine
action) - Carpe Diem Interlude (312-13)
- C 316-22 Judgment and Human Nature
- Carpe Diem Conclusion (3 22)
- D 41-519 Royal Rule and the Cult
- Carpe Diem Conclusion (517-19)
43The Rhetorical Structure of Qoheleth and its
Theology
- 1. The opening and closing poems demonstrate
that humans and nothing they create endures.
Only the cosmos endures. - 2. The key expression, hebel habelim means
that life and all that is quickly passes. - 3. The expression, chasing the wind, means it
is impossible for humans to retain the
life-giving spirit. At death it returns to the
God who gave it. - 4. Wisdom offers a moral path, but it does not
provide an escape from the same death that
overwhelms the wicked. - 5. The seven-fold repetition of enjoy life
(sieze the day) is the answer to Qoheleths main
question What is good in human living? Or,
what gives meaning to life. - 6. God is hidden and cannot be known. He is
simply to be feared.
44What is the Origin of Qoheleths Pessimism?
- Qoheleth lived in an age well known for its
skepticism about obtaining truth and its
criticism of the gods. - He also inherited the traditions of wisdom from
earlier times in Israel and the Ancient Near
East, which also contain, at times, teachings of
skepticism. - In the age of the Ptolemies in the latter part of
the third century, B. C. E., the date of the book
(?), the Egyptian empire is collapsing and Judea
will become soon a part of the Seleucid Empire to
the East. Thus the times are unstable and
fearful to those enduring this transition in
royal power.
45Songs of the Harper
- The Harper Songs, whether sapiential or not,
comprise a genre that depicts a blind minstrel
performing at a mortuary wake, in which the
deceased and close relatives participate. The
wall scene of tombs depicts a harper entertaining
guests at a feast in honor of the deceased.
Normally, the texts celebrate the deceaseds
journey to the afterlife. They assure the living
that the dead person has made proper mortuary
preparations and ask them to celebrate with joy
the transition to the new world.
46The best known of these texts, introduced by
the words, A song which is in the tomb of (King)
Inyotef, a ruler of the eleventh dynasty, is
found in the Papyrus Harris 500 manuscript dating
from the nineteenth dynasty of Rameses II. The
text is also preserved in a damaged form in an
eighteenth dynasty tomb at Saqqara.
47This genre depicts a blind minstrel
performing at a mortuary wake, in which the
deceased and close relatives participate. The
wall scene of tombs depicts a harper entertaining
guests at a feast in honor of the deceased.
Normally, the texts celebrate the deceaseds
journey to the afterlife. They assure the living
that the dead person has made proper mortuary
preparations and ask them to celebrate withjoy
the transition to the new world.
48The Harpers Song
- He is happy, this good prince!
- Death is a kindly fate
- A generation passes,
- Another stays,
- Since the time of the ancestors,
- The gods who were before rest in their tombs.
- (Yet) those who built tombs,
- Their places are gone,
- What has become of them?
- I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hardedef
- Whose sayings are recited whole.
- What of their places?
- Their walls have crumbled,
- Their places are gone
- As though they had never been!
- None of them comes from there
- To tell of their state
- To tell of their needs,
- To calm our hearts,
- He is happy, this good prince!
- Death is a kindly fate
- A generation passes,
- Another stays,
- Since the time of the ancestors,
- The gods who were before rest in their tombs.
- (Yet) those who built tombs,
- Their places are gone,
- What has become of them?
- I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hardedef
- Whose sayings are recited whole.
- What of their places?
- Their walls have crumbled,
- Their places are gone
- As though they had never been!
- None of them comes from there
- To tell of their state
- To tell of their needs,
- To calm our hearts,
49Grave Inscriptions (Egypt)
- The Egyptian autobiographies consistently contain
three literary features an autobiographical
narrative, ethical sayings, and instructions and
exhortations. The audience they envision is
comprised either of visitors to the tomb or, in
the case of the temple inscriptions, the priests - The autobiography consisted of the titles and
accomplishments of the deceased, while the
sayings offered were the same that guided the
dead speaker through life. The deceased is
portrayed as intelligent and wise. As a devotee
of his god, he tells of his acts of piety and
dutiful response to the deitys desires - Many are traditional in content and reflect the
importance of pious and virtuous living. They
encourage their visitors to emulate their
behavior.
50Grave Stela (Egypt)Taimhotep
- The wife of them High Priest of Ptah at Memphis.
She died at the age of 30 in 42 B. C. E. In her
autobiographical tomb inscription, she says to
her husband - O (my) brother, husband, friend, high
priest do not weary of drink, food, deep
drinking, and loving. Make a holiday! Follow
your heart day and night! Do not set sorrow in
your heart. What are the years which are not on
earth? As for the West, it is a land in sleep,
heavy darkness, the dwelling-place of those who
are there. Sleep is in their (mummy) forms.
They do not awake to see their brothers, they do
not see their fathers or their mothers, their
hearts lack their wives and their children. The
water of life which is food for all, it is thirst
for me. It comes (only) to the one who is on
earth I am thirsty (though) water is beside me.
51Royal Testaments
- Qoheleth is shaped literarily as a royal
testament of a dead king, the famous Solomon from
the past, who speaks to his audience from the
tomb. - Several instructions from Egypt are presented
also as teachings of dead kings to their
successors.
52Testament of Merikare
- Originating during the First Intermediate period
in the Herakleopolitan Dynasty, The Instruction
for King Merikare, portrays a new king who was
the last ruler of this dynasty (ends in 2125 B.
C. E.). At the time, the tenth dynasty was in
competition with what would be the eleventh
dynasty located at Thebes. The biographical
fiction presents Merikare as coming to the
throne, when his deceased father (King Cheti?)
instructs him on how to rule. Three papyri from
the eighteenth dynasty are known, although the
beginning of the instruction is damaged, and
there are no ostraca that suggest schoolboy
copies. Merikares father, possibly Cheti,
speaking in the first person, teaches his son
matters of royal responsibility for the
actualization of cosmic order in nature and
society and provides him with important counsel
on how to govern wisely and successfully.
53Testament of Amenemhet
- Attributed to Cheti, the author of The Satire on
the Trades and perhaps also the Hymn to the
Nile, this Egyptian instruction is also placed
in the mouth of a deceased ruler, Amenemhet, and
is offered as a revelatory teaching to his son,
Sen-Usert. The teaching was composed by a court
scribe, Cheti, who came under the patronage of
King Sen-Usert I (1971-1928, B. C. E.). Its
purpose was to legitimate the rule of the new
king, perhaps on the occasion of his accession to
the throne perhaps during his coronation festival
where, during his installation as king, he
appeared as a god. - The founder of the 12th dynasty (1985-1956 B. C.
E.). King Amenemhet tells his son of his great
feats during his reign, and yet also reveals to
his successor the intrigue that led to his
assassination. The theme of loyalty is prominent
in this teaching with the dead king warning his
successor to trust no one. This suggests that
the successor was to deal harshly with the
assassins and others who might oppose his rule.
The primary purpose of the instruction was
political in that it was to provide legitimation
for the rule of Sen-Usert.
54Testament of the Dying David To the Wise Solomon
(1 Kgs. 21-12)
- 2 When David's time to die drew near, he charged
his son Solomon, saying 2"I am about to go the
way of all the earth. Be strong, be
courageous, 3and keep the charge of the LORD your
God, walking in his ways and keeping his
statutes, his commandments, his ordinances, and
his testimonies, as it is written in the law of
Moses, so that you may prosper in all that you do
and wherever you turn. 4Then the LORD will
establish his word that he spoke concerning me
'If your heirs take heed to their way, to walk
before me in faithfulness with all their heart
and with all their soul, there shall not fail you
a successor on the throne of Israel.' 5
"Moreover you know also what Joab son of Zeruiah
did to me, how he dealt with the two commanders
of the armies of Israel, Abner son of Ner, and
Amasa son of Jether, whom he murdered,
retaliating in time of peace for blood that had
been shed in war, and putting the blood of war on
the belt around his waist, and on the sandals on
his feet. 6Act therefore according to your
wisdom, but do not let his gray head go down to
Sheol in peace. 7Deal loyally, however, with the
sons of Barzillai the Gileadite, and let them be
among those who eat at your table for with such
loyalty they met me when I fled from your brother
Absalom. 8There is also with you Shimei son of
Gera, the Benjaminite from Bahurim, who cursed me
with a terrible curse on the day when I went to
Mahanaim but when he came down to meet me at the
Jordan, I swore to him by the LORD, 'I will not
put you to death with the sword.' 9Therefore do
not hold him guiltless, for you are a wise man
you will know what you ought to do to him, and
you must bring his gray head down with blood to
Sheol."
55Conclusion
- These speeches from the dead emphasize the
authority of the revered speaker who, while
deceased, is held in great esteem in the
tradition of the sages or of the members of the
family addressed by the entombed person. - In addition, speeches from the dead are taken
with great seriousness, seeing that they now have
joined the divine world and that of the dead who
either live eternally or await the resurrection. - The literary structure of the book assists us in
understanding its overall theology. - The matter is not only a literary issue. As
Brevard Childs has argued (The Biblical Theology
of the Old and New Testament), the final
canonical forms of books are to be read as a
unit, since these represent the way the
communities of believers (Jews and Christians)
read these texts. Theologically, it is the
canonical form that is authoritative and not an
earlier redaction. - Hence, Qoheleths literary structure helps us to
understand his major theme in view of death,
one is to embrace and enjoy life.