Chapter Seven

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Chapter Seven

• The First Two Years
• Psychosocial Development

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Theories About Early Psychosocial Development

• Importance of parents and their contribution to
  emotional growth

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Psychoanalytic Theory

• Connects biosocial and psychosocial development

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Freud Oral and Anal Stages

• Oral Stage1st stage, where infant obtains
  pleasure through sucking and biting
• Anal Stage2nd stage, where anus becomes main
  source of gratification, i.e., bowel movements
  and the control of them

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Erikson Trust and Autonomy

• 1st StageTrust vs. Mistrust
• basic needs need to be met with consistency,
  continuity, and sameness
• 2nd StageAutonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• basic desire to gain self-rule over their own
  actions and bodies and to feel ashamed if it
  doesnt happen

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Behaviorism

• Infants emotions and personality are molded as
  parents reinforce or punish childs spontaneous
  behavior
• social learning adds to personality formation
• social referencing strengthens learning by
  observation

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Cognitive Theory

• Individuals thoughts and values determine
  perspective on the world
• Working modelset of assumptions used to organize
  perceptions and experiences

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Epigenetic Theory

• Each child is born with a genetic predisposition
  to develop certain traits that affect emotional
  development
• Temperamentconstitutionally based individual
  differences in emotion, motor, and attentional
  reactivity and self-regulation.
• Inhibited (cautious)
• Uninhibited (risk taker)
• epigeneticthough temperamental traits not
  learned, environment affects their expression

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Research on Temperament Nine Characteristics

• activity level
• rhythmicity
• approach-withdrawal
• adaptability
• intensity of reaction
• threshold of responsiveness
• quality of mood
• distractibility
• attention span

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Temperament and Caregiving

• Inhibited vs. Uninhibited
• responsive care and encouragement can help
  inhibited children become less so
• Match between parent and child
• goodness of fit

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Sociocultural Theory

• Emphasizes the many ways social context can have
  impact on infant-caregiver relationship
• If social context changes, child can change

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Emotional Development in Infancy

• In the first 2 years of emotional development,
  infants progress from simple reactions to complex
  patterns of social awareness

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The First Year

• Newborns first discernable emotions
• distress
• contentment
• Later emotions (after first weeks)
  
• Anger (4-8 mos.)
• Fear (9 mos.), expressed clearly by stranger
  wariness and separation anxiety

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The Second Year

• Fear and anger typically decrease
• Laughing, crying more discriminating
• New emotions appear
• pride
• shame
• embarrassment
• guilt

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Self-Awareness

• Foundation for emotional growth
• realization of individual distinctions
• At about 5 months begin developing a sense of
  self apart from mother
• 15-18 months the Me-self
• rouge experiment

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Pride and Shame

• Self-awareness becomes linked with self-concept
  early on
• Negative comments more likely to lead to less
  pride or shame
• Own pride can be more compelling than parental
  approval

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The Development of Social Bonds

• Social connections help us understand human
  emotions

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Synchrony

• Synchronycoordinated interaction attunement
• Helps infants learn to express own feelings
• Imitation is pivotal
• Infant can begin to connect felt emotion with
  parents facial expression
• Becomes more elaborate and more frequent with
  time
• Learning through play
• playful interactions by both partners
• important for both to be responsive

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Attachment

• Enduring emotional connection
• Proximity-seeking behaviors
• Contact-maintaining behaviors
• Development of Attachment
• Indiscriminate sociability (0-6 wks.)
• Discriminating sociability (6 wks. 6 or 7 mos.)
• Attachment (7 mos. 2 yrs.)
• Secure base behavior
• Stranger anxiety
• Separation anxiety
• Goal-corrected partnership (after 2 yrs. of age)
• Understanding of reciprocity, turn-taking

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Secure and Insecure Attachment

• Bowlby and Ainsworth
• Securerelationship of trust and confidence that
  provides comfort, assurance, and secure base

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Secure and Insecure Attachment, cont.

• Insecurerelationship that is unpredictable or
  unstable
• avoidant one person tries to avoid any
  connection with another
• resistant/ambivalent anxiety and uncertainly
  keep one person clinging to another

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Measuring Attachment

• Strange Situationlab procedure to measure
  attachment observed are
• exploration of the toys (caregiver present)
• reaction to caregivers departure
• reaction to caregivers return
• disorganized behaviorneither secure nor insecure
  attachmentmarked by inconsistent behavior of
  caregiver and infant toward each other

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Insecure Attachment as a Warning Sign

• Stressed mother (although not always an
  indicator)
• Mother too withdrawn
• Inconsistent behavior of mother (conflicting
  messages sent by her)
• Insecure attachments repairable

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Social Referencing

• Looking to others for cues

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Referencing Mom

• Look to mother for comfort
• Mothers tone and expression can become guide to
  how to react to unfamiliar or ambiguous event

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Referencing Dad

• Fathers play more than mothers
• Infants look to fathers for fun and physical play
• Physically active play with fathers may
  contribute to development of social skills and
  emotional expression
• Physically active play with fathers helps
  children master motor skills and develop muscle
  control

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Cultural Differences

• Fathers, single mothers, grandparents, and
  cultures with other family structures still
  provide needed referencing
• Fathers involvement
• can benefit later development of child
• raise mothers self-confidence
• and two parents working together are better able
  to meet infants needs than either alone

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Infant Day Care

• Almost all infants cared for by people other than
  parents part of the time
• Specifics vary from culture to culture
• The older the child and the more money the family
  has, the more likely possibility of day care

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Infant Day-Care

• Family day care
• Center care
• Day care generally beneficial
• High-quality programs include
• adequate attention to each infant
• encouragement of sensorimotor exploration and
  language development
• attention to health and safety
• well-trained professional caregivers

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Infant Day Care, cont.

• Cognitive and biosocial development are more
  advanced by day care than at home
• Poor day care has detrimental effects

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Conclusions in Theory and Practice

• No single theory stands out as best
  interpretation of developments during first 2
  years
• Do not know the extent to which positive
  influence can compensate for negative one

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Conclusions in Theory and Practice, cont.

• Parental attentiveness crucial to synchrony,
  attachment, and social referencing.
• In dealing with children with problems, need a
  practical rather than theoretical approach that
  focuses on their specific issues