MODULE TWO What Is Research

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MODULE TWOWhat Is Research?

• EDU 691
• Troy State University
• Chan Roark, Ph.D.

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Mark your calendar

• This module should be completed by the end of the
  first week of class.
• Dont forget Module One should be completed by
  the end of this week, too.

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What Is Research?

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Research

• A systematic investigation, involving the
  collection of information (data), to solve a
  problem or contribute to knowledge about a
  theory or practice.
• Relies on methods and principles that will
  produce credible and verifiable results.
• McMillan, J. Wergin, J. (1994). Understanding
  and Evaluating Educational Research. Upper
  Saddle River, NJ Merrill.

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Research helps

• provide scientific understanding
• solve practical problems
• Elmes, D., Kantowitz, B. Roediger, H. (1995).
  Research Methods in Psychology. St. Paul West.
• An interesting web site about Psychology in Daily
  Life
• http//www.apa.org

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Methods of Fixing Beliefs

• authority
• someone told me
• tenacity
• steadfastly refuses to alter beliefs regardless
  of evidence -- bigotry
• a priori
• believed without study -- seems reasonable
• scientific (empirical)
• understanding on the basis of empirical
  observation

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Science

• The central purpose of science is to provide an
  objective, factual and useful account of the
  world in which we live.

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Three Domains of Science

• Scientific knowledge
• knowledge verified by scientific methods
• Scientific research
• methods used for accumulation and verification of
  knowledge
• Scientific theory
• systematically organizes facts to explain
  phenomena

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ScienceTwo Primary Functions

• Development of theory
• Testing of substantive hypotheses that are
  deducted from theory (data)
• Best, J. Kahn, J. (1998). Research in
  Education . Boston Allyn and Bacon.

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Scientific method

• an approach that can be used to discover accurate
  information about behavior and development that
  includes the following steps
• identify and analyze the problem,
• collect data,
• apply statistical procedures to understand
  quantitative data
• draw conclusions,
• revise theories.

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The Scientific Method Involves

• Deduction
• moving from general to specific
• Induction
• moving from specific to general
• Strong inference
• eliminating possible alternative explanations
• Elmes, D., Kantowitz, B. Roediger, H. (1995).
  Research Methods in Psychology. St. Paul West.

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Science progresses when new facts lead to new
theories.
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Theory Development CYCLE

• Tentative
• Modified
• More info
• Generates more research

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The Theory Cycle

• tend to generate new and creative research,
• research accumulates additional knowledge,
• new knowledge brings about the modification of
  existing theories and the building of new
  theories, and
• the cycle begins again.
• Roscoe, J. (1975) . Fundamental Research
  Statistics for the behavioral Sciences. New
  York Holt, Rinehart Winston.

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Theory Development

• Scientific understanding is tentative
• Incorrect theories are modified.
• Additional information is gathered.

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In the sciences, progress is measured by the
accumulation of knowledge.
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Theory

• Not valueless ivory tower stuff
• Organizes concepts and facts into a coherent
  pattern.
• Establishes cause and effect relationship between
  variables with the purpose of explaining and
  predicting phenomena.
• Petals Around A Rose to demonstrate theory
  development

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A Better Theory

• A set of related statements that explains a
  variety of occurrences.
• the more the occurrences,
• the fewer the statements
• the better the theory.
• Elmes, D., Kantowitz, B. Roediger, H. (1995).
  Research Methods in Psychology. St. Paul West.

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Criteria for Evaluating A Theory

• Parsimony
• the fewer the statements the better
• Precision
• Design must be clearly defined to be replicated
• Testability
• A theory that cannot be tested can never be
  disproved.

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Another Criteria for Theory

• Consistent with known facts
• Internally consistent - various ideas within the
  theory should not contradict each other.
• Structured to be readily communicated to permit
  empirical verification
• Simple - why often use math symbols as opposed
  to words
• Ability to successfully predict
• Roscoe, J. (1975) . Fundamental Research
  Statistics for the behavioral Sciences. New
  York Holt, Rinehart Winston.

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Theory and Practice

• Often pure researchers do not seek opportunity to
  apply knowledge.
• Only one of Piagets books discusses education in
  any great detail!

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Theories

• tend to generate new and creative research,
• research accumulates additional knowledge,
• new knowledge brings about the modification of
  existing theories and the building of new
  theories, and
• the cycle begins again.
• Roscoe, J. (1975) . Fundamental Research
  Statistics for the behavioral Sciences. New
  York Holt, Rinehart Winston.

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Psychological research attempts to understand why
people and animals behave as they do.
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• By attempting to apply the rigorous, systematic
  observation analysis used in the physical and
  biological sciences to areas of social behavior,
  the social sciences have grown and have advanced
  humanitys knowledge of itself.
• Best, J. Kahn, J. (1998). Research in
  Education . Boston Allyn and Bacon.

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Why Use Research?

• You must determine which approach to use for each
  client and evaluate its suitability.
• This requires
• an understanding of the counseling process
• a mastery of basic facilitation skills
• a functional knowledge of research methodologies
• Kottler, J. and Brown, R. (1996). Introduction
  to Therapeutic Counseling. Pacific Grove, CA
  Brooks/Cole.

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Applied Research

• Attempts to understand a problem so it can be
  resolved
• Relies on objective, empirical methods rather
  than logical claims or subjective feelings
• Kottler, J. and Brown, R. (1996). Introduction
  to Therapeutic Counseling. Pacific Grove, CA
  Brooks/Cole.

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Three Important Aspects in Studying Research
Methodology

• Terminology and Language
• Knowledge of the classic studies of the field and
  their implications in application
• Conducting systematic studies on topics that have
  professional meaning to you
• Kottler, J. and Brown, R. (1996). Introduction
  to Therapeutic Counseling. Pacific Grove, CA
  Brooks/Cole.

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Steps in Research

• Identify and define the question or problem
• Determine what previous research says about the
  question or problem.
• Frame a hypothesis.
• Design a plan for collecting data.
• Complete the research.
• Analyze the results of gathering data.
• Generate conclusions.

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Step One

• Define the problem
• Ask the research question

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The distinction between good and poor research
more often than any other factor is the
distinction between asking a good or poor
research question. Roscoe, J. (1975) .
Fundamental Research Statistics for the
behavioral Sciences. New York Holt, Rinehart
Winston.
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Step Two

• Research the literature
• Dont reinvent the wheel
• What is already known?
• What more can be learned?

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Step Three

• Formulate a hypothesis
• Rephrase as a null hypothesis

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Hypothesis - The Question

• Since your study will be designed to test a
  hypothesis, it must be developed first.
• The nature of the hypothesis will determine
• the sample group
• measuring instruments
• design
• procedures
• statistical techniques

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The Power of Thinking

• Formulating the hypothesis makes you think
• The very process makes you think of something you
  might have overlooked
• Facilitates evaluation
• Provides a guide for conducting the study
• Reduces the probability of mistakes

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Null Hypothesis

• In research generally state expectation in terms
  of no effect
• After completing study, retain or reject null
  hypothesis

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A good hypothesis will specify the following
elements

• Population for the study
• Independent variable
• the one manipulated
• Dependent variable
• the outcome variable -- observed and measured

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Step Four

• Design a plan for collecting the data
• Who will be included?
• Will a sample be sufficient?

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Step Five

• Complete the research

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Step Six

• Analyze the results
• Compile data
• Apply statistical procedures

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Step Seven

• Generate conclusions
• Share knowledge
• Tell the professionals you work with
• Write articles for professional journals
• Present papers at professional conferences

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Patterns in Research

• Note how these patterns follow the steps
• Pattern One
• Awareness of the problem and the need for a
  solution
• Functional definition of the problem so that it
  can be solved

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Patterns cont.

• Pattern Two
• Systematic study of the context and background of
  the problem
• Summary of what is known about the problem and
  what has been tried before to solve it
• Pattern Three
• Prediction of outcome and selection of actions
  based on probability of success

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Patterns cont.

• Pattern Four
• Testing of hypotheses in plan of action
• Pattern Five
• Evaluation of results

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Patterns cont.

• Pattern Six
• Inferences drawn and generalizations made to
  other situations
• Generalization from the study of particular
  instances to similar class of events
• Kottler, J. and Brown, R. (1996). Introduction
  to Therapeutic Counseling. Pacific Grove, CA
  Brooks/Cole.

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Value of Developing Research Expertise

• Consumers capable of critical analysis of
  methodologies, statistical procedures, arguments,
  and conclusions
• Putting new finding to work in actual setting
• Saving time and energy in completing research

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Value cont.

• Generating new knowledge
• Trains one to think analytically, intentionally
  and systematically about problems
• Ethical responsibility
• Kottler, J. and Brown, R. (1996). Introduction
  to Therapeutic Counseling. Pacific Grove, CA
  Brooks/Cole.

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Problems in Conducting Research With Humans

• No two persons are alike.
• No one person is completely consistent from
  moment to moment.
• Humans are influenced by the research process
  itself.
• The behavioral sciences have been limited by the
  use of constructs.
• Best, J. Kahn, J. (1998). Research in
  Education . Boston Allyn and Bacon.

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Constructs

• Traits such as intelligence, learning, anxiety,
  motivation, are not directly observable.
• Referred to as constructs -- implying constructs
  of the scientists imagination
• Constructs cannot be seen heard or felt.
• Can only be inferred by phenomenon such as test
  scores, pulse rate, observed aggressive acts,
  etc.
• Best, J. Kahn, J. (1998). Research in
  Education . Boston Allyn and Bacon.

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Question 2aReview the role of research in theory
development. Be sure you define both research
and theory.
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Question 2bThink of an experiment, either one
you make up or one you have read about. Briefly,
trace the seven steps of research in that example.