The Middle Ages

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The Middle AgesMyth and Reality
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The Myth

• We think of knights in shining armor, lavish
  banquets, wandering minstrels, kings, queens,
  bishops, monks, pilgrims, and glorious pageantry.
  
• In film and in literature, medieval life seems
  heroic, entertaining, and romantic.

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The Reality

• In reality, life in the Middle Ages, a period
  that extended from approximately the 5th century
  to the 15th century in Western Europe, could also
  be harsh, uncertain, and dangerous.

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Feudal Life
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Lord of the Manor

• For safety and defense, people in the Middle
  Ages formed small communities around a central
  lord or master.

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The Manor

• Most people lived on a manor, which consisted of
  a castle (or manor house), a church, a village,
  and the surrounding farm land.

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Self-Sufficiency

• Each manor was largely self-sufficient, growing
  or producing all of the basic items needed for
  food, clothing, and shelter.
• To meet these needs, the manor had buildings
  devoted to special purposes, such as
• The mill for grinding grain
• The bake house for making bread
• The blacksmith shop for creating metal goods.

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Isolation

• These manors were isolated, with occasional
  visits from peddlers, pilgrims on their way to
  the Crusades, or soldiers from other fiefdoms.

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Fiefs

• Under the feudal system, the king awarded land
  grants or fiefs to his most important nobles,
  barons, and bishops, in return for their
  contribution of soldiers for the king's armies.

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Peasants

• At the lowest level of society were the peasants,
  also called serfs or villeins.
• The lord offered his peasants protection in
  exchange for living and working on his land.

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Nobles and Vassals

• Nobles divided their land among the lesser
  nobility, who became their servants or vassals.
  Many of these vassals became so powerful that the
  kings had difficulty controlling them.

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The Kings Rivals

• By 1100, certain barons had castles and courts
  that rivaled the king's they could be serious
  threats if they were not pleased in their
  dealings with the crown.

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The Magna Carta

• In 1215, the English barons formed an alliance
  that forced King John to sign the Magna Carta. It
  limited the king's powers of taxation and
  required trials by jury. It was the first time
  that an English monarch was subject to the law.

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Peasant Life

• Peasants worked hard to cultivate the land and
  produce the goods that the lord and his manor
  needed.
• They were heavily taxed and were required to
  relinquish much of what they harvested.

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Low Status

• The peasants did not even "belong to" themselves,
  according to medieval law. The lords, in close
  association with the church, assumed the roles of
  judges in carrying out the laws of the manor.

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Bound by law and custom

• It is the custom in England, as with other
  countries, for the nobility to have great power
  over the common people, who are serfs. This means
  that they are bound by law and custom to plough
  the field of their masters, harvest the corn,
  gather it into barns, and thresh and winnow the
  grain they must also mow and carry home the hay,
  cut and collect wood, and perform all manner of
  tasks of this kind. -- Jean Froissart,
  1395 

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The Role of Women

• Whether they were nobles or peasants, women held
  a difficult position in society.
• They were largely confined to household tasks
  such as cooking, baking bread, sewing, weaving,
  and spinning.

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Hunting Fighting

• However, they also hunted for food and fought in
  battles, learning to use weapons to defend their
  homes and castles.

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Other Occupations

• Some medieval women held other occupations. There
  were women blacksmiths, merchants, and
  apothecaries.

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Midwives, Farmers, Artists

• Others were midwives, worked in the fields, or
  were engaged in creative endeavors such as
  writing, playing musical instruments, dancing,
  and painting.

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Witches Nuns

• Some women were known as witches, capable of
  sorcery and healing. Others became nuns and
  devoted their lives to God and spiritual matters.

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Religion
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The Catholic Church

• The Catholic Church was the only church in Europe
  during the Middle Ages, and it had its own laws
  and large income.
• Church leaders such as bishops and archbishops
  sat on the king's council and played leading
  roles in government.

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Bishops

• Bishops, who were often wealthy and came from
  noble families, ruled over groups of parishes
  called dioceses.

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Parish Priests

• Parish priests, on the other hand, came from
  humbler backgrounds and often had little
  education.
• The village priest tended to the sick and
  indigent and, if he was able, taught Latin and
  the Bible to the youth of the village

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Gothic Cathedrals

• As the population of Europe expanded in the
  twelfth century, the churches that had been built
  in the Roman style with round-arched roofs became
  too small.
• Some of the grand cathedrals, strained to their
  structural limits by their creators' drive to
  build higher and larger, collapsed within a
  century or less of their construction.

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Monasteries

• Monasteries in the Middle Ages were based on the
  rules set down by St. Benedict in the sixth
  century. The monks became known as Benedictines
  and took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience
  to their leaders.

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Monks

• Monks were required to perform manual labor and
  were forbidden to own property, leave the
  monastery, or become entangled in the concerns of
  society.
• Daily tasks were often carried out in silence.

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Nuns

• Monks and their female counterparts, nuns, who
  lived in convents, provided for the
  less-fortunate members of the community.
  Monasteries and nunneries were safe havens for
  pilgrims and other travelers.

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Monastic Life

• Monks and nuns went to the monastery church eight
  times a day in a routine of worship that involved
  singing, chanting, and reciting prayers from the
  divine offices and from the service for Mass.

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The Divine Office

• The first office, Matins, began at 2 AM and the
  next seven followed at regular intervals,
  culminating in Vespers in the evening and
  Compline before the monks and nuns retired at
  night.

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Education

• Between prayers, the monks read or copied
  religious texts and music. Monks were often well
  educated and devoted their lives to writing and
  learning.

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Pilgrimages

• Pilgrimages were an important part of religious
  life in the Middle Ages. Many people took
  journeys to visit holy shrines such the
  Canterbury Cathedral in England and sites in
  Jerusalem and Rome.

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The Canterbury Tales

• Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is a series of stories
  told by 30 pilgrims as they traveled to
  Canterbury.

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Homes
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Cold, Damp, and Dark

• Most medieval homes were cold, damp, and dark.
  Sometimes it was warmer and lighter outside the
  home than within its walls.

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Windows

• For security purposes, windows, when they were
  present, were very small openings with wooden
  shutters that were closed at night or in bad
  weather. The small size of the windows allowed
  those inside to see out, but kept outsiders from
  looking in.

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Peasants Homes

• Many peasant families ate, slept, and spent time
  together in very small quarters, rarely more than
  one or two rooms. The houses had thatched roofs
  and were easily destroyed.

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House Construction
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Medieval Village
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Homes of the Wealthy

• The homes of the rich were more elaborate than
  the peasants' homes. Their floors were paved, as
  opposed to being strewn with rushes and herbs,
  and sometimes decorated with tiles. Tapestries
  were hung on the walls, providing not only
  decoration but also an extra layer of warmth.

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Fenestral Windows

• Fenestral windows, with lattice frames that were
  covered in a fabric soaked in resin and tallow,
  allowed in light, kept out drafts, and could be
  removed in good weather. Only the wealthy could
  afford panes of glass sometimes only churches
  and royal residences had glass windows.

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The Kitchens of Peasant Homes

• In simpler homes where there were no chimneys,
  the medieval kitchen consisted of a stone hearth
  in the center of the room. This was not only
  where the cooking took place, but also the source
  of central heating.

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The Peasant Diet

• In peasant families, the wife did the cooking and
  baking. The peasant diet consisted of breads,
  vegetables from their own gardens, dairy products
  from their own sheep, goats, and cows, and pork
  from their own livestock.

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Herbs Pottage

• Often the true taste of their meat, salted and
  used throughout the year, was masked by the
  addition of herbs, leftover breads, and
  vegetables. Some vegetables, such as cabbages,
  leeks, and onions became known as "pot-herbs."
  This pottage was a staple of the peasant diet

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The Kitchens of Manor Houses

• The kitchens of manor houses and castles had big
  fireplaces where meat, even large oxen, could be
  roasted on spits. These kitchens were usually in
  separate buildings, to minimize the threat of
  fire.

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Sources of Meat

• Pantries were hung with birds and beasts,
  including swans, blackbirds, ducks, pigeons,
  rabbits, mutton, venison, and wild boar. Many of
  these animals were caught on hunts.

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Clothing
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Woolen Linen Clothing

• Most people in the Middles Ages wore woolen
  clothing, with undergarments made of linen.
  Brighter colors, better materials, and a longer
  jacket length were usually signs of greater
  wealth.

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Clothing of the Wealthy

• The clothing of the aristocracy and wealthy
  merchants tended to be elaborate and changed
  according to the dictates of fashion. Towards the
  end of the Middle Ages, men of the wealthy
  classes sported hose and a jacket, often with
  pleating or skirting, or a tunic with a surcoat.

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Womens Clothing

• Women wore flowing gowns and elaborate headwear,
  ranging from headdresses shaped like hearts or
  butterflies to tall steeple caps and Italian
  turbans.

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Monks Clothing

• Most of the holy orders wore long woolen habits
  in emulation of Roman clothing. One could tell
  the order by the color of the habit the
  Benedictines wore black the Cistercians and
  Dominicans, undyed wool or white, and the
  Franciscans, brown. St. Benedict stated that a
  monk's clothes should be plain but comfortable
  and they were allowed to wear linen coifs to keep
  their heads warm.

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Nuns Clothing

• The Poor Clare Sisters, an order of Franciscan
  nuns, had to petition the Pope in order to be
  permitted to wear woolen socks.

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Peasant Clothing

• Peasant men wore stockings and tunics, while
  women wore long gowns with sleeveless tunics and
  wimples to cover their hair. Sheepskin cloaks and
  woolen hats and mittens were worn in winter for
  protection from the cold and rain. Leather boots
  were covered with wooden patens to keep the feet
  dry.

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Outer and Under Garments

• The outer clothes were almost never laundered,
  but the linen underwear was regularly washed. The
  smell of wood smoke that permeated the clothing
  seemed to act as a deodorant. Peasant women spun
  wool into the threads that were woven into the
  cloth for these garments.

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Fur and Jewelry

• Fur was often used to line the garments of the
  wealthy. Jewelry was lavish, much of it imported
  and often used as security against loans. Gem
  cutting was not invented until the fifteenth
  century, so most stones were not very lustrous.
  Ring brooches were the most popular item from the
  twelfth century on.

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Love Conquers All

• Chaucer's prioress in the Canterbury Tales wore a
  brooch with the inscription Amor vincit omnia
  (Love conquers all), not a particularly
  appropriate slogan for a nun.

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Laws Governing Jewelry

• Diamonds became popular in Europe in the
  fourteenth century. By the mid-fourteenth century
  there were laws to control who wore what jewelry
  , and knights were not permitted to wear rings.
  Sometimes clothes were garnished with silver, but
  only the wealthy could wear such items.

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Health
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Health Hygiene

• As the populations of medieval towns and cities
  increased, hygienic conditions worsened, leading
  to a vast array of health problems.

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Medicine

• Medical knowledge was limited and, despite the
  efforts of medical practitioners and public and
  religious institutions to institute regulations,
  medieval Europe did not have an adequate health
  care system. Antibiotics weren't invented until
  the 1800s and it was almost impossible to cure
  diseases without them.

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Myths and Superstitions

• There were many myths and superstitions about
  health and hygiene as there still are today.
  People believed, for example, that disease was
  spread by bad odors. It was also assumed that
  diseases of the body resulted from sins of the
  soul. Many people sought relief from their ills
  through meditation, prayer, pilgrimages, and
  other nonmedical methods.

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Four Humors

• The body was viewed as a part of the universe, a
  concept derived from the Greeks and Romans. Four
  humors, or body fliuds, were directly related to
  the four elements.
• Fire yellow bile or choler
• Water phlegm
• Earth black bile
• Air blood.
• These four humors had to be balanced. Too much of
  one was thought to cause a change in
  personality--for example, too much black bile
  could create melancholy.

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Bloodletting

• Medicine was often a risky business. Bloodletting
  was a popular method of restoring a patient's
  health and "humors." Early surgery, often done by
  barbers without anesthesia, must have been
  excruciating.

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Medical Treatment

• Medical treatment was available mainly to the
  wealthy, and those living in villages rarely had
  the help of doctors, who practiced mostly in the
  cities and courts. Remedies were often herbal in
  nature, but also included ground earthworms,
  urine, and animal excrement.

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Remedies

• Many medieval medical manuscripts contained
  recipes for remedies that called for hundreds of
  therapeutic substances--the notion that every
  substance in nature held some sort of power
  accounts for the enormous variety of substances.

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Lay Medical Judgments

• Many treatments were administered by people
  outside the medical tradition. Coroners' rolls
  from the time reveal how lay persons often made
  sophisticated medical judgments without the aid
  of medical experts. From these reports we also
  learn about some of the major causes of death.

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Surgery

• Performed as a last resort, surgery was known to
  be successful in cases of breast cancer, fistula,
  hemorrhoids, gangrene, and cataracts, as well as
  tuberculosis of the lymph glands in the neck
  (scrofula). The most common form of surgery was
  bloodletting it was meant to restore the balance
  of fluids in the body.

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Arts Entertainment
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Art and Music

• Art and music were critical aspects of medieval
  religious life and, towards the end of the Middle
  Ages, secular life as well. Singing without
  instrumental accompaniment was an essential part
  of church services. Monks and priests chanted the
  divine offices and the mass daily.

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Musical Instruments

• Some churches had instruments such as organs and
  bells. The organistrum or symphony (later known
  as a hurdy gurdy) was also found in churches. Two
  people were required to play this stringed
  instrument--one to turn the crank and the other
  to play the keys.

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Drama

• Medieval drama grew out of the liturgy, beginning
  in about the eleventh century. Some of the
  topics were from the Old Testament (Noah and the
  flood, Jonah and the whale, Daniel in the lion's
  den) and others were stories about the birth and
  death of Christ.

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Costumes

• These dramas were performed with costumes and
  musical instruments and at first took place
  directly outside the church. Later they were
  staged in marketplaces, where they were produced
  by local guilds.

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Town Life
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Expansion

• After 1000, peace and order grew. As a result,
  peasants began to expand their farms and villages
  further into the countryside. The earliest
  merchants were peddlers who went from village to
  village selling their goods.

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Peddlers

• As the demand for goods increased--particularly
  for the gems, silks, and other luxuries from
  Genoa and Venice, the ports of Italy that traded
  with the East--the peddlers became more familiar
  with complex issues of trade, commerce,
  accounting, and contracts.

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Businessmen

• They became savvy businessmen and learned to deal
  with Italian moneylenders and bankers. The
  English, Belgians, Germans, and Dutch took their
  coal, timber, wood, iron, copper, and lead to the
  south and came back with luxury items such as
  wine and olive oil.

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Tradesmen

• With the advent of trade and commerce, feudal
  life declined. As the tradesmen became wealthier,
  they resented having to give their profits to
  their lords.

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Boroughs

• Arrangements were made for the townspeople to pay
  a fixed annual sum to the lord or king and gain
  independence for their town as a "borough" with
  the power to govern itself. The marketplace
  became the focus of many towns.

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Town Governments

• As the townspeople became "free" citizens,
  powerful families, particularly in Italy,
  struggled to gain control of the communes or
  boroughs. Town councils were formed.

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Guilds

• Guilds were established to gain higher wages for
  their members and protect them from competitors.
  As the guilds grew rich and powerful, they built
  guildhalls and began taking an active role in
  civic affairs, setting up courts to settle
  disputes and punish wrongdoers.

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The Merchant Class

• The new merchant class included artisans, masons,
  armorers, bakers, shoemakers, ropemakers, dyers,
  and other skilled workers.

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Masons

• Of all the craftsmen, the masons were the highest
  paid and most respected. They were, after all,
  responsible for building the cathedrals,
  hospitals, universities, castles, and guildhalls.
  

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Apprentices

• Masons learned their craft as apprentices to a
  master mason, living at lodges for up to seven
  years. The master mason was essentially an
  architect, a general contractor, and a teacher.

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The First Companies

• The population of cities swelled for the first
  time since before the Dark Ages. With the new
  merchant activity, companies were formed.
  Merchants hired bookkeepers, scribes, and clerks,
  creating new jobs.

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The Printing Press

• Printing began in 1450 with the publication of
  the Bible by Johannes Gutenberg. This
  revolutionized the spread of learning. Other
  inventions of the time included mechanical
  clocks, tower mills, and guns.

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The Birth of the Renaissance

• The inventions of Leonardo da Vinci and the
  voyages of discovery in the fifteenth century
  contributed to the birth of the Renaissance.

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Urban Life

• Few serfs were left in Europe by the end of the
  Middle Ages, and the growing burgher class became
  very powerful. Hard work and enterprise led to
  economic prosperity and a new social order. Urban
  life brought with it a new freedom for
  individuals. 

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References

• Adapted from the Annenberg Media/Learner.org
  website The Middle Ageshttp//www.learner.org/e
  xhibits/middleages/