bastian mimicry is a type of mimicry where a harmless speci

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61 Batesian vs. Mullerian Mimicry
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61 Batesian vs. Mullerian Mimicry

• Bastian mimicry is a type of mimicry where a
  harmless species looks like a different species
  that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to
  predators

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Non-poisonous species on the left Look like
Poisonous species on the right. Model and Mimic
sums this concept up.
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61 Batesian vs. Mullerian Mimicry

• Mullerian mimicry is a mutual mimicry by two
  unpalatable species.
• Each species gains an additional advantage
  because the pooling of numbers causes predators
  to learn more quickly to avoid any prey with a
  particular appearance.

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The 6 poisonous species above all look similar to
each other. The 5 poisonous species below all
look similar to each other. It is easier for a
bird to learn to avoid 2 color patterns than 11
different ones.
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Arctic Tundra (another type of tundra alpine
tundra)

• Coldest biome
• swampy plains
• Permafrost (permanently frozen subsoil)
• No sun for six months
• Vegetation treeless, Short growing season
  lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges, shrubs
• Location North of arctic ocean, northern lands
  of Europe, Asia, and North America, and Greenland
• Temperature -40C to 18C
• Weather High winds cause of absence of trees
  and other tall plants, Rainfall 150 250mm rain
  per year . soil does not even soak up the water
  because of the permafrost.

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Tropical Forest

• Temperature 20C to 25 C
• ClimateWarm and frost- free, Distinct wet and
  dry season
• Rainfall 2,000 to 10,000 mm of rain per year
• Vegetation Mixture of thorny shrubs, trees, and
  succulents, Deciduous trees are common
• Growing Level 3 stories. 1) canopy (tall trees),
  2) understory (mix of small trees, vines, and
  palms), 3) forest floor herbs, mosses and
  fungi)
• Location Between tropic of Cancer and tropic of
  Capricorn

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Coniferous Forest (taiga)

• Location south of Arctic tundra. Alaska to
  North America to Atlantic Ocean and across
  Eurasia.
• Vegetation mainly cone bearing trees. Soil is
  not very fertile. No leaves to decompose and
  enrich the soil.
• Climate receives heavy snowfall during winter.
  Warm moist air from Ocean
• Largest biome
• Animals ermine, moose, red fox, snowshoe rabbit,
  great horned owl, crossbill

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Temperate Grassland

• Climate hot, dry, good for growing food
• Location Midwest to the Rocky Mountains, South
  Africa, Eurasia, South America
• Rainfall very little
• Vegetation very little trees, crops
• Animals deer, prairie dog, giraffe, zebra, lion,
  wolf, bison

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Temperate Deciduous Forest

• Location Northern Hemisphere. Eastern North
  America, Europe, and Eastern Asia
• Vegetation Deciduous trees, wildflowers,
  berries. Soil is very fertile because of the
  decaying leaves.
• Animals deer, American gray squirrels, wood
  mice, rabbits, raccoons
• Vertical Layers understory of shrubs and an
  herbaceous stratum.

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Desert

• Climate dry, hot or cold
• Rainfall less than 30 cm per year
• Location Every continent except Europe
• Vegetation Cacti, deeply rooted shrubs these
  plants rely on CAM photosynthesis.
• Animals snakes, lizards, reptiles,

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Savanna

• Fire is an important abiotic component
• Vegetation grasses and forbs, scattered trees
• Has rainy seasons
• Has periods of regular seasonal drought
• Animals large grazing mammals

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Chaparral

• Vegetation dense, spiny, evergreen shrubs.
• Rainy winters
• Long, hot, dry summers
• Location midlatitude coastal areas
• Dependant on periodic fires

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64
Plant Tissues
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Ground Tissues

• Parenchyma- most common component of ground
  tissue, thin walls, functions storage,
  photosynthesis.
• Collenchyma- thick but flexible cell walls, for
  support.
• Sclerenchyma- thicker walls than collenchyma, for
  support

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Dermal Tissue

• Consists of epidermis cells that cover the
  outside of plant parts and guard cells that
  surround the stomata.
• Epidermis of leaves most stems secretes a waxy
  coating called cuticle that helps aerial parts of
  plant retain water

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Vascular Tissue

• Xylem- conduction of water minerals, support,
  xylem cells are dead at maturity
• Trachied- long tapered, water passes from 1
  tracheid to another
• Vessels- shorter wider than tracheids, have or
  no taper at ends

• Phloem- conduction of sugar
• Sieve-tube- living at maturity, lack nuclei
  ribosomes
• Companion cells- lie adjacent to each sieve tube
  by plasodesmata
• Help load sugar produced in leaf into sieve tube

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65 TRANSPIRATION AND THE TACT FORCES
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Transpiration

• Water transpires (evaporates) from leaves
  through the stomata, creating a negative pressure
  in the xylem. Water is pulled in the leaves
  because of continual transpiration.

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Adhesion

• A continuous flow of water is maintained by the
  adhesion (of unlike systems) of water and xylem
  cells.

Attractive forces between unlike systems.
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Cohesion

• Water is pulled up continuously through the
  cohesion (of like systems) of water molecules
  through the hydrogen bonding.

Attractive forces between like systems.
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Tension

• The negative pressure in the stem because of
  transpiration in the leaves is known as tension.
  It pulls water from places of greater water
  pressure to places of lesser water pressure.

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• Opening of
• Guard Cells

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FACTORS INVOLVED

• P Potassium ions
• N Night/day
• T Temperature
• C CO2 concentration

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P Potassium Ions

• Active transport of potassium ions (K) creates
  a gradient for the movement of water into the
  guard cell, which swell and open the stomata.

Guard
Cell
Guard
Cell
K

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N Night/Day

• Stomata close at night and open during the day.
  During daylight hours, CO2 is low because it is
  used by photosynthesis, but at night, CO2 levels
  are high because of respiration.

Guard
Cell
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C CO2 Concentration

• Guard cells open when CO2 concentrations are low
  inside the leaf. This allows active
  photosynthesis, since CO2 is required.

CO2 IS LOW
OPEN
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T Temperature

• stomata close when temperatures are high. This
  reduces loss of water (but shuts down
  photosynthesis).

Guard
Cell
HEAT
HEAT
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69PHOTOTROPISM
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• Tropism- growth movement whose direction is
  determined by a stimulus.
• Positive growth towards the stimulus.
• Negative growth away from the stimulus.

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• Plants respond to
• Light phototropism
• Stems are positively phototropic.
• Roots are negatively phototropic.
• Gravity gravitropism
• Stems are negatively gravitropic
• roots are positively gravitropic.

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Phototropism and Gravitropism both controlled by
Auxin
Auxin Made in Meristematic region
Auxin effects elongation region
Sunlight destroys auxin on sunny side of plant so
shady side elongates more.
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70. Plant Hormones

• You need to know 5 plant hormones and what they
  control
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.

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Plant Hormones

• Auxin (I.A.A.)
• Abscisic Acid
• Cytokinins
• Ethylene
• Giberillic Acid

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• Auxin (also known as
• Idoleacetic acid or IAA)
• Leads to elongation of stems
• Plays a role in phototropism
• Plays a role
• in gravitropism

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Plant Hormones

• 2. Abscisic Acid
• Inhibits cell growth
• Helps close stomata to maintain water balance
• Makes sure seeds do not germinate too early
• Responsible for leaves falling off in the fall.

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• 3. Cytokinins
• Promotes cell division
• Contributes to leaf enlargement

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• 4. Ethylene
• Initiates fruit ripening

Supermarkets use Ethylene to make tomatoes and
bananas picked green ripen when the market wants
them to be ripe.
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• 5. Gibberllins
• Like auxin, it assists in stem elongation
• (makes really tall plants)
• Induces growth of dormant seeds, buds, and
  flowers
• Is naturally made by some root fungus.

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74 CAM Plants

• CAM stands for Crassulacean acid metabolism.
• Adaptation to arid conditions
• Water storing plants

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How it works

• Open their stomata during the night so CO2 can
  come in.
• Close stomata during day helps pant conserve
  water but also prevents carbon dioxide from
  entering leaves. Stores CO2 as malate
• Mesophyll cells store organic acids make during
  the night in their vacuoles until morning.

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How it works (continued)

• During the day , releases organic acids to become
  incorporated into sugar in the chloroplasts.
• Does this during the day because, it is when the
  light reactions can supply ATP and NADPH for
  Calvin Cycle

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Differences in CAM and C4 plants

• CAM PLANTS
• Carbon dioxide is first incorporated into organic
  intermediates before it enters the Calvin Cycle
• Two steps occur at separate times when going
  through carbon fixation.

• C4 Plants
• Carbon dioxide is first incorporated into organic
  intermediates before it enters the Calvin Cycle
• Initial steps of carbon fixation are separated
  structurally from the Calvin Cycle

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Picture
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75Cellular Respiration
Catabolic pathway for production of ATP oxygen
is consumed as a reactant along with organic fuel
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The first two phasesGlycolysis Krebs
Cycle
-breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid -occurs in
cytosol
to carbon dioxide and water
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Cellular Respiration Up Close

• The Krebs Cycle
• Electron transport chain
• At the end

Decomposes derivative of pyruvate to CO2
Accepts e- from substrates to NAD, forming NADH
e- combine with H and O2 to form H2O The energy
released at e/ step is stored in mitochondrion
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Terms to Remember

• Glycolysis
• Krebs cycle
• Oxidative phosphorylation
• Electron transport chain
• Redox reactions

Breaks glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
Decomposes a derivative of pyruvate to carbon
dioxide
production of ATP using energy derived
from the redox reactions of an electron transport
chain
accepts electrons from the
breakdown products of the first two stages and
passes them from one molecule to another
transfer of one or more electrons from one
reactant to another
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76.N E U R O N

• P a r t s
• a n d
• F u n c t i o n s

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the neurons functions

• Cell body
• Contains the nucleus and all the usual organelles
  found in the cytoplasm.

• Neuron
• The basic unit of structure and function in the
  nervous system.
• Consists of a cell body, dendrites, and axons to
  receive and transmit the info.

• Schwann Cells
• A chain of supporting cells that wraps around the
  axon.
• Forms an insulated layer made up of myelin
  sheath, which speeds up the propagation of an
  impulse.

• Dendrites
• Receive inputs and conducts signals toward the
  cell body.

• Axons
• Conduct signals away from the cell body towards
  the

• Synaptic Terminals
• (branches from the axon)
• Which relay signals to other cells by releasing
  chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

• Node of Ranvier
• Where the action potential travels from one node
  to the other, skipping the schwann cells.
• Results in faster impulse transmission.