Adult Learning Theory

1
Lecture 2

• Adult Learning Theory

2
Lecture outline

• Learning
• Adults as learners
• Basic types of learning
• A theory of adult learning
• Critical learning
• Unlearning
• Holistic adult learning
• Organisational learning
• Practical application to adult learning

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Learning

• Learning is defined as a relatively permanent
  change in behaviour or behaviour potential that
  results from ones experiences (Sigelman and
  Shaffer 1995210).
• It is change - in thoughts, perceptions, or
  reactions to the environment - that is neither
  programmed by the genes nor due to maturation
  (Domjan 1993).
• Kolb (1984) defines learning not as fixed and
  immutable ideas where change can be measured, but
  as a process whereby concepts are derived from
  and continuously modified by experience.
• Involves - thinking, feeling, perceiving and
  behaving.
• Learning is the primary adaptive mechanism in
  humans.

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Adults as learners

• Lindeman (1926) proposed the learning process of
  adults and children.
• For the next 70 years the theme has been
  championed by Malcom Knowles.
• Knowles believed that the pedagogical
  suppositions of learning were only relevant to
  children and that adults operated under a
  different set of assumptions - andragogy
• See Table 2.1
• Knowles has recognised that adults can learn best
  under the assumptions of pedagogy and at times
  andragogical process is more appropriate.
• Pedagogical - structured or dependent
• Andragogical - unstructured or independent

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Adults as learners cont.

• Andragogical assumptions -
• Learning should be relevant to real-life
  situations and problems.
• Learning should incorporate the rich experiences
  of the adult learners - using tacit knowledge.
• Learning should involve the adult learner - to
  ensure transferability to the operational site.

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Basic types of learning

• Classical conditioning - Pavlovs dog and the
  learning of emotional responses.
• Behaviour modification - assumption that research
  about human development should be based on overt
  behaviour. Learning a matter of accumulating a
  series of S-R associations - or Law of Effect.
• Skinner (1953) operant conditioning - positive
  and negative reinforcement.
• Modelling - Bandura (1977) believed that people
  have far more sophisticated cognitive abilities -
  processing information from the environment plays
  a major role in learning.
  
  
  
  

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Modelling

• Observational learning(modelling) is regarded as
  the most important mechanism through which human
  behaviour changes - this is learning to do things
  by observing how particular models do them and
  then imitating the behaviour of those models.
• Zimbado (1988) most effective -
• model is perceived positively
• models behaviour is visible and salient
• within the observers range of competence to
  enact the behaviour
• models behaviour is seen as having reinforcing
  consequences.

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A Theory of Adult Learning

• Mezirow (1994) suggests that there are three
  levels of adult learning -
• instrumental
• communicative
• emancipatory

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Instrumental learning

• Learning to control and manipulate the
  environment.
• Task-orientated problem solving - how to do
  something or how to perform.
• Establish the truth through empirical testing -
  we can measure changes resulting from our
  learning in terms of productivity and behaviour.
• Two examples of instrumental learning
• Procedural training
• Empirical research

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Principles of learning

• Starting with the known
• Readiness to learn
• Part learning
• Spaced learning
• Active learning
• Over learning
• Multiple-sense learning
• Feedback
• Meaningful material
• Transfer of learning

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Communicative learning

• Communicative learning involves the dynamics of
  understanding others.
• Communicative learning - trying to understand
  what somebody means - involves values,
  intentions, feelings, ideals and normative
  concepts (Mezirow 1994).
• Seeks to establish the validity, or
  justification, for personal beliefs.
• Rational discourse - the need to understand
  values, ideals, feelings, etc can only be
  achieved through rational discourse.

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Rational discourse

• Defined as a discussion that allows each party to
  understand the position of the party, and in turn
  have his or her position understood.
• Rational discourse more likely to be successful
• Learners have equal opportunity to participate
• Free from coercion/ distorting self-perception
• Are open to alternative points of view and care
  about what others think.
• The importance of communicative learning -
  industrial democracy, empowerment and TQM failed
  because used instrumental learning not
  communicative learning - require a deeper and
  more complex learning process.

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Knowledge Creation

• Nonaka and Konno (1998)
• Explicit and tacit knowledge
• Explicit knowledge - can be expressed in words
  and numbers and shared in the form of data,
  formulae, manuals etc - readily transmitted
  between individuals formally and systematically.
• Tacit knowledge is highly personal and hard to
  formalise, making it difficult to communicate or
  share with others - deeply rooted in an
  individuals actions and experience as well as in
  the ideals, values that he or she embraces.
• Two dimension of tacit knowledge - technical
  dimension and a cognitive dimension

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Knowledge Creation The SECI Model

• Socialisation - sharing tacit knowledge with
  others
• Externalisation - tacit knowledge converted to
  explicit knowledge
• Combination - conversion of explicit knowledge
  into more complex forms
• Internalisation - conversion of explicit
  knowledge into tacit knowledge

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Emancipatory learning

• Mezirow (1996) - emancipatory learning requires
  individuals to transform their basic frames of
  reference - transformational learning.
• Frames of reference are those deep-seated
  underlying values and belief systems that guide,
  shape and dictate everyday attitudes and
  behaviours.
• What we do and do not perceive, comprehend and
  remember is profoundly influenced by our frames
  of reference.
• Hierarchy of assumptions - three types of
  assumptions - paradynamic, prescriptive and causal

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The role of frames of reference

• Frames of reference have three important
  qualities
• Filter information
• Any change to a master program is usually
  accompanied by an emotional reaction
• They are very well defended by the psyche
• Changing frames of reference - gradually change
  an associated cluster of causal and prescriptive
  assumptions through communicative learning and
  modelling distorting dilemma.

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Critical reflection

• Occurs when an individual discerningly examines
  the very foundation and justification for his or
  her beliefs.
• What are these habits of thinking I have fallen
  into? Where did these frames of reference come
  from?
• Mezirow (1990) differences on reflecting on
  content, process and premise
• Content reflection - focuses on causal
  assumptions
• Process reflection - focuses on prescriptive
  assumptions by examining the process used to
  solve the problem
• Premise reflection - focuses on paradynamic
  assumptions by examining the basic premise of
  the problem

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Critical thinking

• Critical thinking is different from critical
  reflection.
• Critical reflection involves the deep
  examination of the foundations of ones belief.
• Critical thinking impinges on our knowledge of
  the topic or the logic we use to change our
  knowledge of the topic.
• The logical process of changing personal
  knowledge, by using problem solving, creativity,
  evaluation, dialectic thinking and logical
  reflection.
• Process of questioning

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Critical thinking

• Problem solving component of critical thinking -
  define problem, identify possible solutions,
  evaluate each solution, select a solution, plan,
  implement and evaluate.
• Creativity - previously unconnected information
  elements together in new, unusual or adaptive
  ways.
• Evaluation - distinguishing relevant from
  irrelevant
• Dialectic thinking - allows the mind to accept
  that an entity has opposing attributes.
• Logical reflection - important aspect of critical
  thinking as the learner reviews the problem
  solving and the results of being creative.

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Unlearning

• Growing interest in the concept of unlearning
  (Starbuck 1996).
• People seem to have difficulty in discarding
  ineffective or obsolete methods or theories.
  Learning often cannot occur until after there has
  been unlearning.
• Obsolete knowledge simply overwritten
• New knowledge sits beside old knowledge

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Organisational learning

• Similar process of learning occur at the
  organisational level.
• Agyris (1992) refers to double-loop learning and
  single-loop learning.
• Single-loop learning occurs when an error is
  detected and corrected with questioning or
  altering the underlying values or the system.
• Double-loop learning occurs when the underlying
  values of the system are questioned or altered
  and eventuates when mismatches are corrected by
  first examining and altering governing variables
  and then the actions.