Engineering Management

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Engineering Management

• Assistant Prof. Dr. Korb Srinavin

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Outline

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?????????????? (Productivity Improvement)
17 June 2005
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• Productivity is the effectiveness with which
  construction inputs (management, manpower,
  materials, money, machine and working space) are
  utilized in support of construction activities to
  produce facilities (buildings, structures, etc.).
  
• Inputs -gt Process -gt Outputs
• It is therefore,
• Productivity Outputs / Inputs
• It can be measured (assessed) in two (2) levels
• 1. Total factor productivity such as
  productivity of all construction resources,
• 2. Partial or single factor productivity such as
  productivity of labour which is mainly
  concentrated.

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Work study

• Work study is a series techniques which can be
  used for the systematic examination and
  investigation of every aspect of human work and
  the factors that affect efficiency and economy in
  order to bring about improvement.
• There are two (2) techniques used in work study
  which are method study and work measurement.

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Method study

• According to the sientific manager theory
  (Taylor), this is a systematic approach to
  improve the methods of production as summarized
  below.
• 1. Improve use of materials, equipment and
  manpower.
• 2. Improve processes and procedures.
• 3. Improve workplace layout.
• 4. Improve the design of tools and equipment.
• 5. Reduce unnecessary work.
• 6. Develop a better working environment.

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• Conditions suggesting need for method study shall
  be as follows
• 1. Use of excessive labour overtime,
• 2. Bottlenecks in flow of materials,
• 3. High materials wastage,
• 4. Frequent plant breakdown,
• 5. Fatiquing work,
• 6. Late programme,
• 7. Poor quality and workmanship,
• 8. Delays to and by sub-contractors,
• 9. Excessive errors and mistakes,
• 10. Shortages of resources,
• 11. Insufficient information,
• 12. Site congestion,
• 13. Bad working conditions,
• 14. Cost overruns,
• 15. High labour turnover,
• 16. Poor design of temporary works,
• 17. Poor site layout.

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• Procedure to accomplish method study, called
  "SREDIM" shall be as follow
• 1. Select the job or operation that needs
  improvement,
• 2. Record all facts, how work is done by
  chart methods,
• 3. Examine every aspect of the job by asking
  what, why, where, when, who and how
• 4. Develop review ideas,
• eliminate, simplify, combine, re-arrange,
• make new method which more safe,
• chart new method,
• submit for approval,
• 5. Install the new method,
• consider best time to introduce,
• convince all,
• train users,
• 6. Maintain check frequently,
• match results,
• correct deviations.

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Recording techniques

• Charts
• 1 Outline process chart.
• 2 Flow process chart (man-type, material-type
  and equipment-type)
• This is the use of symbols and description to
  chart the sequence of work. The process, then,
  show what is happening at
  different stages. The distances and time may be
  given.
• 3 Two hands process charts.
• 4 Multiple activity charts
• This technique is used to solve problems where a
  number of items are dependent on each other. The
  aim is to reduce idle times by using the optimum
  number of each item. It depicts the occupied
  times-broken down into the number of different
  activities and the idle times both for the
  original and proposed methods of doing the job.
  The items are recorded on the same time scale and
  more than one cycle is usually needed to prevent
  error.

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• Diagrams and models (2-D and/or 3-D)
• 1 Flow diagrams, which is the use of symbols
  for flow process charts, superimposed on drawings
  and the "descriptions" are not necessary.
• 2 String diagrams, which is used for solving
  movement problems since it shows congestions and
  excessive distances.
• 3 Cut-out templeats (2-D models),
• 4 3-D models,
• Photography
• 1 Photographs,
• 2 Films,
• 3 Video.

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Work measurement

• The application of technique designed to
  establish the time for a qualified worker to
  carry out a specified job at a defined level of
  performance. Hence, the objectives of method are
  to develop standard time for the followings
• 1. Construction planning and scheduling,
• 2. Estimates of tenders, quotations and
  completion dates,
• 3. Setting output standards,
• 4. Balancing work of workers and machines.

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• Procedure (SREMCD)
• 1. Select the work to be studied,
• 2. Record all relevant data, the methods and
  elements of the job,
• 3. Examine the data to ensure that the best
  method is used and the productive and
  unproductive elements of job,
• 4. Measure the quantity of work in each
  element in terms of time,
• 5. Compile the standard time for the
  operation with allowances made,
• 6. Define the method and issue the standard
  time

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• Techniques
• 1. Time study
• Stages involved in time study techniques are
• 1.1 Selecting the work to be measured,
• 1.2 Analyzing and breaking the work into
  elements,
• 1.3 Rating and timing each element,
• 1.4 Extending the observed time to basic time,
• 1.5 Selecting basic times, allocating
  allowances and building up the final standard.
• The timing technique can either be cummulative
  (using an ordinary watch) or flyback timing
  (using a stop watch).

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• 2. Activity sampling
• This technique uses the principles of the
  statistical method of random samples. Snap
  readings are taken at intervals and the
  percentage of readings taken per element will
  give a result very near the actual percentage on
  each if the sample is big enough. This is then
  used to calculate the time taken on each element
  if needed.
• The technique can be used for the followings
• 1) To assess idle times,
• 2) To find the proportion of time spent on
  each element of work,
• 3) To find the utilization of
  machines/operatives as a basis for
  reducing idle time.

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• 3. Feedback of output data,
• 4. Synthesis from standard data or estimates.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION APPLICABLE TO CONSTRUCTION

• Performance is a function of the interaction of
  ability and motivation.
• performance f(ability x motivation).

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Motivation

• Definition
• Motivation is the willingness to exert high
  levels of effort toward organizational goals.
  Generally, the motivation concerns effort toward
  any goal, the term "effort" comprises the
  qualityof the effort as well as its intensity.
  Motivation to the employees have to be done in a
  state of tension. To relieve this tension, the
  effort is exerted, the greater tension, the
  higher effort level.

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Early theories of motivation (1950s)

• Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)
• Theory X and theory Y (McGregor)
• Motivation-hygiene theory

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Contemporary theories of motivation (1960s)

• ERG theory
• Three needs theory
• Cognitive evaluation theory
• Goal-setting theory
• Reinforcement theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy theory

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Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)

• Maslow hypothesized that within every human being
  there exists a hierarchy of five (5) needs which
  are
• Physiological hunger, thirst, shelter, sex,
  other bodily needs,
• Safety security, protection from physical
  and emotional harm,
• Love affection, belongingness, acceptance
  and friendship,
• Esteem internal esteem factors such as
  self-respect, autonomy and achievement,
• external esteem factors such as
  status, recognition and attention,
• Self-actualization drive to become what one is
  capable of becoming, include growth,
  achieving one's potential and
  self-fulfillment.

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Self-actualization
Esteem
Love
Safety
Physiological
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Theory X and theory Y (McGregor)

• Theory X (negative)
• Employees inherently dislike work and whenever
  possible, will attempt to avoid it.
• Since employees dislike work, they must be
  coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment
  to achieve goals.
• Employees will shirk responsibilities and seek
  formal direction whenever possible.
• Most workers place security above all other
  factors associated with work and will display
  little ambition.

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• Theory Y (Positive)
• Employees can view work as being as natural as
  rest or play.
• People will exercise self-direction and
  self-control if they are committed to the
  objectives.
• The average person can learn to accept, even
  seek, responsibility.
• Creativity-that is, theability to make innovative
  decisions-is widely dispersed throughout the
  population and is not necessarily the sole
  province of those in management positions.

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Motivation-hygiene theory (Herzberg)

• What do people want from their job?
• When those questioned felt good about their work,
  they tended to attribute these characteristics to
  themselves
• When they were dissatisfied, they tended to cite
  extrinsic factors, such as company policy and
  administration, supervision, interpersonal
  relations and working conditions

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• Herzberg proposed that his findings indicate the
  existence of a dual continuum the opposite of
  "satisfaction" is "no satisfaction" and the
  opposite of "dissatisfaction" is "no
  dissatisfaction". Accordingly, the factors
  leading to job satisfaction are separate and
  distinct from those that lead to job
  dissatisfaction. Therefore, the managers will be
  placating their work force rather than motivating
  them. As a result, such characteristics as
  company policy and administration, supervision,
  interpersonal relations, working conditions and
  salary have been characterized by Herzberg as
  "hygiene factors"

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ERG theory

• ERG's needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs
• Existence Physiological and safety,
• Relatedness Love and external esteem,
• Growth Intrinsic esteem and self-actualization.
• In contrast to Maslow's, the ERG theory
  demonstates the followings
• 1. More than one need may be operative at the
  same time.
• 2. If the gratification of a higher-level need is
  stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need
  increases

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Three needs theory

• Need for achievement
• the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a
  set of standards, to strive to succeed,
  achievement rather than the rewards and hence,
  high achievers differentiate themselves from
  other by their desire to do things better,
• Need for power
• the need to make others behave in a way that they
  would not have behaved otherwise, the desire to
  have impact, to be influential and to control
  others,
• Need for Affiliation
• the desire for friendly and close interpersonal
  relationships, desire to be liked and accepted by
  others, prefering coorperative situations rather
  than competitive ones.

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Cognitive evaluation theory

• It is proposed in 1960s that the introduction of
  extrinsic rewards such as pay for work effort
  that had been previously intrinsically rewarding
  due to the pleasure associated with the content
  of work itself, would tend to decrease the
  overall levels of motivation.
• It is argued that when extensic rewards are used
  by organizations as payoffs for superior
  performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are
  derived from individuals doing what they like are
  reduced. In other words, when extrinsic rewards
  are given to someone for performing an
  interesting task, it causes intrinsic interest in
  task itself to decline.

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Goal-setting theory

• It was proposed in 1960s that intentions to work
  toward a goal are a major source of work
  motivation. More to the point, the specific goals
  increase performance that difficult goals, when
  accepted, result in higher performance than do
  easy goals and that feedback leads to higher
  performance than does non-feedback.
• Overall conclusion is that intentions-as
  articulated in terms of hard and specific
  goals-are a potent motivating force. They do lead
  to higher performance. However, there is no
  evidence that such goals are associated with
  increased job satisfaction.

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Reinforcement theory

• A counterpoint to goal-setting theory,
  reinforcement theory have a behavioristic
  approach in stead of a cognitive approach. It is
  argued that reinforcement conditions behavior.
  Reinforcement theory ignored the "inner state" of
  the individual and concentrates solely on what
  happens to a person when he/she takes some action.

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Equity Theory

• This theory consider the importance of three (3)
  referent categories Self-Other-Systems.
• If the system rewards the employee (him/her) as
  others, the system is fair. In contrast, if the
  system rewards the employee (him/her) different
  from the others, the system is not fair.
• Let
• O/IA the employee,
• O/IB the relevant others, the Equity theory
  yields the following conclusion.
• Ratio comparisons Perception
• O/IA lt O/IB Inequity due to being under
  rewarded,
• O/IA O/IB Equity,
• O/IA gt O/IB Inequity due to being over
  rewarded.

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Expectancy theory

• This theory is the most widely accepted
  explanation of motivation. Although it has its
  critics, most of research evidence is supportive
  of theory. The theory argued that the strength of
  a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
  strength of an expectation that the act will be
  followed by a given outcome and on the
  attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
  It includes the followings three (3) variables.

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• 1. Attractiveness
• This is the importance that the individual places
  on the potential outcome or reward that can be
  achieved on the job, this considers the
  unsatisfied needs of the individual.
• 2. Performance-reward linkage
• This is the degree to which the individual
  believes that performing at a particular level
  will lead to attainment of a desired outcome.
• 3. Effort-performance linkage
• This is the perceived probability by the
  individual that exerting a given amount of effort
  will lead to performance.