PSYCH 101 A

1
PSYCH 101 A B Feb. Mid-term
TSOS Exam Cram Session February 8th 2008
2
Research Methods (II)Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean calculated by adding all the score then
  dividing by the number of scores- The mean is
  not useful when a group of scores contains a few
  extreme scores
• Median falls exactly in the middle of a
  distribution of scores after theyve been
  arranged from highest to lowest
• Mode the score that occurs most frequently. -
  Mode can be useful when the info desires is about
  preference or popularity

3
Distributions

• Most basic type of statistical procedure is to
  construct a distribution of the data
• You may want to organise the data in a table
  called a frequency distribution.
• Graphs researchers want to present a frequency
  distribution as a graph.
• Polygons A common graph for plotting frequency
  distributions.
• Histograms When making graphs, one should be as
  fair as possible.

4
Shapes of Distribution

• A distribution is symmetric if it can be folded
  at the vertical axis
• Unimodal distribution with 1 peak
• Bimodal distributions with 2 peaks
• Skewness some asymmetric distributions contains
  distinct differences in the rails of the
  distribution
• skewed-to-the-right/ Positively skewed
• skewed-to-the-left/ Negatively skewed

5
Measures of Variability

• Describes how much the scores in a sample vary
  from one another
• Range the amount between the highest and the
  lowest scores
• Standard deviation involves how much the scores
  vary on the average around the mean of the sample
• S.D. indicates how closely scores are clustered
  around the mean. The smaller the S.D., the less
  variability from the mean

6
Different types of Statistics

• Descriptive statistics - Mathematical procedures
  that are used to describe and summarise samples
  of data in a meaningful way
• Inferential Statistics Mathematical methods
  that are used to draw conclusions about data. It
  can help determine the significance of the scores
  collected
• Inferential Stats indicates if data sufficiently
  support or confirm a research hypothesis

7
Conducting Ethical Research

• Informed consent participants must know what
  their participation will involve and what risks
  might develop
• Confidentiality researchers are responsible for
  keeping all of the data they gather on
  individuals completely confidential and when
  possible, anonymous
• Debriefing After the study has been completed,
  participants should be informed of its purpose
  and the methods that were used.
• Deception In all cases, the psychologist must
  ensure that the deception will not harm the
  participants and that they will be debriefed
  after the study.

8
Minimising Bias

• Gender bias- Conclusions are often drawn about
  females attitudes and behaviours from research
  done with males as the only participant. -
  Preconceived notion about the abilities of women
  and men that prevented individuals from pursuing
  their own interests and achieving their
  potential.

9
Minimising Bias

• Cultural Ethnic bias - Because their scores
  dont always fit neatly into measures of central
  tendency, minority individuals have been viewed
  as noise in data. - When researchers obtain
  samples of ethnic groups that are not
  representative of the groups diversity, which
  can lead to over generalisation and stereotyping.

10
Correlation

• A correlation coefficient is a descriptive
  statistic. It tells us about the strength of the
  relationship between two variables.
• Range of a correlation -1.00 1.00.
• Weakest relationship is 0.00, which means that
  the two variables are not related.
• 1.00 correlation indicates that the variables
  are related in a perfectly positive way.
• -1.00 correlation indicates that the variables
  are related in a perfectly negative way.
• In a research, correlations are often 0.00, but
  almost never 1.00, unless the researcher has
  made an error

11
Testing Differences between Means

• Independent Groups- We may wish to compare the
  means from two completely different groups on the
  same measure. - E.g. Men V.S. women,
  left-handers V.S. right, etc.
• Dependent Groups- We may also want to compare
  the means from the same group collected on two
  different occasions. - E.g. depression levels
  before and after treatment.

12
Human Development

• Physical processes Involves changes in ones
  biological nature. Genes inherited, hormonal
  changes of puberty and menopause, and changes in
  the brain, height, weight and motor skills.
• Cognitive processes Involves changes in ones
  thought, intelligence language.
• Socioemotional processes Involves changes in
  ones relationships with other people, changes in
  emotions, and changes in personality.

13
Nature Nurtures Influence

• I. Genotype Phenotype- Genotype Ones
  genetic heritage, the actual genetic material.-
  Phenotype The expression of ones genotype in
  observable characteristics.- Phenotype includes
  physical features (height, weight, eye colour)
  psychological features (intelligence and
  personality) - One can inherit the genetic
  potential to grow very large, but good nutrition
  will also be important to achieving that
  potential

14
Nature Nurtures Influence cont.

• II. Exploring Nature Nurture- Nature
  biological inheritance.- Nurture environmental
  experience.- The interaction of nature and
  nurture, of genes and environment, influences
  every aspect of mind and behaviour to a certain
  degree
• III. Optimal Experiences - A key aspect of
  development involves seeking optimal experiences
  in life - A key aspect of development involves
  seeking optimal experiences in life

15
Child DevelopmentPrenatal Development

• I. Course of Prenatal Development - Germinal
  period Week 1 2- Embryonic period Week 38-
  Foetal period 2nd 9th month
• II. Threats to the foetus - Teratogen agents
  that cause birth defects - FAS Foetal Alcohol
  Syndrome

16
Physical Development in Childhood

• I. Reflexes- Newborns are equipped with
  genetically wired reflexes.- Some of these
  reflexes persist throughout life. - Others
  disappear in the months following birth as higher
  functions mature and infants develop voluntary
  control over many behaviours.
• II. Motor Perceptual Skills - New behaviour is
  the result of developing nervous system the
  bodys physical properties its movement
  possibilities the goal the infant is motivated
  to reach environmental support for the skill -
  Before the first year, infants can perceive
  rhythm and tempo and localise sounds

17
Physical Development in Childhood cont.

• III. The Brain - At early infancy, the brains
  100 billion neurons have only minimal
  connections.
• - Between birth and 2 years, the dendrites of
  the neurons branch out and become more
  interconnected - The infants brain is ready for
  the experiences that will create the connections
• - The connections that are made become
  stronger and will survive the unused will be
  replaced by other neural pathways or disappear

18
Cognitive Development in Childhood

• Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development-
  schema a framework already existed at a given
  moment in a persons mind that organises and
  interprets information
• People use these tools to adapt to schemas-
  assimilation occurs when one incorporates new
  info into existing knowledge- accommodation
  occurs when one adjust their schemas to new
  information

19
Piagetian stage of cognitive development

• 1st stage Sensorimotor stage - Infants
  construct an understanding of the world by
  coordinating sensory experiences with
  motor actions - Object permanence
  understanding that objects and events continue to
  exist even when they cannot directly be seen,
  heard or touched - By the end of this stage,
  infants show complex sensorimotor patterns and
  are beginning to use symbols in their thinking

20
Piagetian stage of cognitive development

• 2nd stage Preoperational stage - Thought
  becomes more symbolic (but limited), egocentric,
  and intuitive rather than logical but the child
  cannot yet perform operations - Preoperational
  children have difficulty understanding that
  reversing an action may restore the original
  conditions from which the action began

21
Piagetian stage of cognitive development

• 3rd stage Concrete Operational stage- Thought
  becomes operational acquire classification
  skills, replacing intuitive thought logical
  reasoning in concrete, but not abstract
  situations - Classification skills are present,
  but abstract thinking is not yet developed.

22
Piagetian stage of cognitive development

• 4th stage Formal Operational stage- This stage
  continues through the adult years - Thought is
  more abstract, idealistic, and logical than the
  previous stage - This developmental theory is
  based on observation of childrens behaviour

23
Socioemotional Development in Childhood

• I. Eriksons Theory of Socioemotional Dev. -
  Life-span development (8 psychosocial stages) -
  Each stage represents a developmental task or
  crisis that one must negotiate. - Each stage
  also makes a potential turning point towards
  greater personal competence or greater weakness
  and vulnerability. - The more successful people
  resolve the issues at each stage, the more
  competent they are likely to become- He didnt
  believe that the proper resolution to a stage is
  always completely positive, however, positive
  resolutions should dominate.

24
Socioemotional Development in Childhood

• II. Attachment in Fancy- Attachment The close
  emotional bond between an infant and its
  caregiver. - Freud infant becomes attached to
  the person or object that feeds the infant and
  thus provides oral satisfaction
• - Harlow contact comfort IS the crucial
  element in the attachment process- Imprinting
  (Lorenz) The tendency of an infant animal to form
  an attachment to the first moving object it seas
  and/or hears - Secure attachment infants uses
  the caregiver as a secure base from which to
  explore the environment

25
Adolescence Development

• Distinction of adolescence puberty-
  Puberty is the physiological changes involved in
  sexual maturation (and other body changes that
  occur at this time) - Adolescence is the
  psychological experiences between puberty and
  adulthood - Puberty has 3 distinct stages
  pre-pubescence, pubescence, and post-pubescence

26
Adolescence Development

• Physical Development
• Females reach puberty between the ages of 10 14
  (usually 1 2 years before males)
• Onset of puberty in males is from 12 and 16 years
  of age.
• Puberty is triggered by hormones.
• Its an interaction between the hypothalamus,
  pituitary gland, and the reproductive organs.

27
Adolescence Development

• Effects of Testosterones at Puberty in Boys
• Growth of pubic hair
• Growth of facial hair
• Muscular development
• Deepening of voice
• Sexual response

28
Adolescence Development

• Effects of Estradiol at Puberty in Girls
• Distribution of body fat
• Breast development
• Distribution of body hair
• Menstruation

29
Adolescence Development

• Psychosocial Development
• Adolescence is often a time of conflict and new
  stressors
• Family and peer relations are altered.
• There is a need for the adolescence to see
  oneself as separate from his family.
• The child makes discoveries about self, parents,
  friends, relationships, and the outside world.

30
Adulthood Development

• Cognitive Change during Adulthood
• Age effects depend on the type of ability.
• Consider the difference between crystallized
  and fluid intelligence. Crystallized
  Intelligence- Abilities that draw on previously
  learned information to make decisions or solve
  problems (e.g. classroom tests, vocabulary tests)
  - Crystallized intelligence increases across the
  life span.Fluid Intelligence- Abilities to see
  complex relationships and solve problems
  (especially spatial visualisation tasks) -
  Research shows that fluid intelligence increases
  into the early twenties and then gradually
  declines.

31
Adulthood Development Erik Eriksons model

• Emphasis Each stage involves the resolution of
  an important psychosocial task or issue
• Stage 1 Trust V.S. Mistrust- Birth 1.5 years
  old - Sense of trust requires a feeling of
  physical comfort and minimal amount of fear and
  apprehension- If needs are not met the infant is
  likely to become suspicious, fearful, or
  insecure- Trust in infancy sets the stage for a
  lifelong belief that the world is a good and
  pleasant place to live

32
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 2 Autonomy V.S. Shame- 1.5 3 years
  old- The child learns to walk, to control
  his/her body, and to begin asserting a sense of
  independence or autonomy. - Failure to master
  these skills can cause self-doubt, shame, or
  inferiority

33
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 3 Initiative V.S. Guilt- 3 5 years
  old- Children learn to take greater care of
  their bodies, toys, and environment- Increased
  responsibility increases initiative. - If the
  child is irresponsible, and made to feel anxious
  about it, feelings of guilt, anxiety, and
  unworthiness may arise

34
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 4 Industry V.S. Inferiority
• - 6 Puberty- LEARNING is the key to this
  stage.- Children direct their energy mastering
  knowledge and intellectual skills. - If their
  efforts are stifled, they may believe that they
  are inferior, mediocre, or inadequate

35
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 5 Identity V.S. Identity Confusion-
  Adolescence to young adulthood (1120 yrs old) -
  Individuals begin to decide who they are they
  develop a sense of identity - Adolescence must
  explore many roles and see which fit. - If the
  adolescence explores such roles in a healthy
  manner then a positive identity will be achieved.
  - If an identity is pushed on the adolescent by
  parents, or if the person does not explore
  different roles for themselves, identity
  confusion may result

36
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 6 Intimacy V.S. Isolation- Young
  adulthood (late teens early 20s 30s)- Many
  young adults are still seeking identity- Erikson
  argues that we must be secure in our identity in
  order to adequately form an intimate
  relationship. - If the young adults form healthy
  friendships and an intimate close relationship
  with another individual, intimacy will be
  achieved. - If intimacy fails to develop during
  this stage, then the individual may experience
  feelings of loneliness and dear or relationships.

37
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 7 Generativity V.S. Stagnation- Middle
  adulthood (40s and 50s) - People who have
  successfully negotiated the 6 earlier stages are
  likely to find meaning and joy in their lives. -
  E.g. Career and family. - Generativity His term
  for living a useful life (and helping the next
  generation) - problems in this stage may result
  in feelings of triviality regarding ones life

38
Erik Eriksons model

• Stage 8 Integrity V.S. Despair- later
  adulthood to death (60s to death) - Critical
  issue is the feelings one has as one evaluates
  ones life.- One may feel that they were years
  well spent (feelings of integrity) - Or one may
  feel despair and become obsessed with wasted
  opportunities

39
Levinsons model

• Emphasis Model identifies periods of stability
  life-structures followed by turbulent
  cross-era transition periods
• Stage 1 Early Adult Transition - From age 17 to
  22 years old- A person begins exploring
  possibilities and making tentative commitments-
  First adult relationships are formed
• Stage 2 Entering the Adult World- From age 22
  to 28 years old - A person creates ones major
  life structure (this could be a marriage or a
  home)

40
Levinsons model

• Stage 3 Age 30 Transition- From age 28 to 33
  years old
• - We begin to evaluate and modify the first
  life stricture he/she has made
• Stage 4 Settling Down- From age 33 to 40 years
  old - At this time, a second life structure is
  created.- May involve family, work, friends or
  community service

41
Levinsons model

• Stage 5 Midlife Transition- From age 40 to 45
  years old - The individual questions what he/she
  has done with his/her life. - A crisis for men o
  women may occur at this stage.
• Stage 6 Entering Middle Adulthood- From age 45
  to 50 years old- An individual forms a new life
  structure.- May involve a new job or marriage

42
Levinsons model

• Stage 7 Age 50 Transition - From age 50 to 55
  years old - It is similar to the Age 30
  Transition, requiring evaluation and adjustments
  of the mid-life structure.
• Stage 8 Culmination of Middle Adulthood- From
  age 55 to 60 years old - An individual may build
  another midlife structure. - Can be a very
  satisfying time if the adult has had successful
  adaptations through the structures.

43
Levinsons model

• Stage 9 Late Adult Transition - From age 60 to
  65. - During this period the individual prepares
  for retirement.
• Stage 10 Late Adulthood- Over age 65. - The
  individual create a new life structure which
  suits ones retirement and health. - Individual
  must deal with the psychological issue of no
  longer being young.

44
Intelligence

• Intelligence problem-solving skills, and the
  ability to adapt to and learn from lifes
  everyday experiences
• Approaches to intelligence testing- relationship
  between intelligence and speed of info
  processing- intelligence and the speed of neural
  conduction
• Aptitude tests predict a persons ability to
  learn
• Achievement tests measure what a person has
  learned or the skills that a person has mastered

45
Criteria of a good test of intelligence

• Validity the extent to which a test measures
  what it is intended to measure
• Reliability the extent to which a test yields
  consistent, reproducible measure of performance
• Standardization developing uniform procedures
  for administering and scoring a test
• Culture-fair tests intelligence tests that are
  intended to be culturally unbiased - i.e.
  questions that are familiar to people from all
  socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds, and that
  contains no verbal questions

46

Neuroscience Intelligence

• Focus on correlation of head brain size with
  intelligence, individual differences in brain
  activity- e.g. info-processing speed, brain
  electrical activity, and brain energy consumption
  
• Head and brain Size- MRI is used to estimate
  brain size- found that a larger head size and a
  larger brain size are associated with higher
  intelligence- magnitude of this correlation is
  not very large- correlational, hence not sure if
  a larger brain causes greater intelligence or the
  other way- unable to determine if correlation is
  due to larger brains having more neurons, greater
  myelinations of neurons.

47
Neuroscience Intelligence cont.

• Information processing speed- studies focus on
  reaction time- some concluded that the speed of
  info processing is an important aspect of
  intelligence- others found that those who do
  well on intelligence tests take more time to
  decide on the type of reasoning needed to solve
  the problem, which enable them to respond more
  quickly with the correct answer speed of info
  processing does not determine intelligence!

48
Neuroscience Intelligence cont.

• Electrical activity in the brain- seek to
  discover link between brain activity
  intelligence by measuring nerve conduction
  velocity evoked potential- Nerve conduction
  velocity (NCV) speed with which electrical
  impulses are transmitted along nerve fibers and
  across synapses. - Little consistency in a
  relation between NCV intelligence- Evoked
  potential an electrical activity in the sensory
  areas of the brain that is caused by some
  external stimulus- found that those who register
  such stimuli more quickly score higher on
  intelligence tests
• this is purely correlational, not causal!

49
Neuroscience Intelligence cont.

• Energy consumption in the brain- measuring the
  rate at which it breaks down glucose to
  compensate for the energy it uses- this rate is
  measured by PET scan- result when individuals
  are at rest and can engage in any cognitive
  activity they choose, those with higher
  intelligence show increased brain activity-
  also when individuals perform an assigned
  cognitive test, those with higher intelligence
  successfully complete the test using less energy
• - conclusion individuals with higher
  intelligence have higher levels of brain activity
  at their disposal and can use it more efficiently
  than less intelligence individuals

50
Theories of Multiple Intelligence

• Factor Analysis, Two-Factor Theory
  Multiple-Factor Theory- Two-factor theory
  Spearmans theory that individuals have both
  general intelligence (g) and a number of specific
  abilities (s) - Factor analysis a statistical
  procedure that examines various items and
  identifies factors that are correlated with each
  other- Multiple-factor theory Thurstones
  theory that intelligence consists of 7 primary
  mental abilities verbal comprehension, number
  ability, word fluency, spatial visualization,
  associative memory, reasoning and perceptual
  speed
  

51
Theories of Multiple Intelligence

• Gardners Theory of Eight Intelligences -
  Verbal skills (ability to think in words use
  language to express meanings)
• - Mathematical skills (ability to carry out
  mathematical operations)- Spatial Skills
  (ability to think 3-dimentionally) -
  Bodily-kinesthetic skills (ability to manipulate
  objects) - Musical skills (sensitivity to pitch,
  melody, rhythm and tone)- Interpersonal skills
  (ability to understand, effectively interact with
  others)- Intrapersonal skills (ability to
  understand oneself)- Naturalistic skills
  (ability to observe patterns in nature and
  understand natural and man-made systems)-
  (existential/spiritual intelligence)

52
Theories of Multiple Intelligence

• Sternbergs Triarchic Theory- Analytical
  intelligence - includes the ability to
  acquire, store, retain, retrieve, transfer
  information, to plan make decisions, and solve
  problems, and to translate thoughts into
  performance- Creative intelligence - have
  the ability to solve problems quickly, but also
  learn how to solve familiar problems in an
  automatic way that their minds are free to handle
  other problems that require insight and
  creativity- Practical intelligence -
  ability to get out of trouble, an aptitude for
  replacing a fuse, and a knack for getting along
  with people street smart practical know-how

53
Theories of Multiple Intelligence

• Emotional Intelligence- captures the importance
  of the interpersonal, intrapersonal and practical
  aspects of intelligence- the ability to monitor
  ones own and others emotions and feelings to
  discriminate among them, and to use this
  information to guide ones thinking and actions
• Golemans views on E.I- developing emotional
  awareness (ability to separate feelings from
  actions)- managing emotions (such as ability
  to control anger)- reading emotions (such as
  taking the perspective of others)- handling
  relationships (such as the ability to solve
  relationship problems)

54
The Extremes of Intelligence Creativity

• Mental retardation- a condition of limited
  mental ability in which the individual has a low
  IQ (lt 70)- inadequate intellectual functioning-
  deficits in adaptive behaviour - first exhibit
  these characteristics by the age of 18- can be
  classified based on IQ- or classified based on
  levels of support needed- Organic retardation
  cause by a genetic disorder or by brain damage -
  e.g. Down syndrome, Williams syndrome -
  Cultural-familial retardation mental deficit in
  which no evidence of organic brain damage can be
  found

55
The Extremes of Intelligence Creativity

• Giftedness - individuals who have an IQ of 120
  or higher and/or superior talent in a particular
  domain- tend to be more mature and have fewer
  emotional problems than others - have grown up
  in a positively family climate - giftedness is
  likely a combination of heredity and environment
  - though giftedness in childhood and in
  adulthood are linked, only a fraction of gifted
  children become revolutionary adult creators-
  partly because some have been pushed so hard by
  overzealous parents and teachers that they lose
  their intrinsic motivation

56
The Extremes of Intelligence Creativity

• Creativity - ability to think about something
  noel and unusual ways and come up with
  unconventional solutions to problems - divergent
  thinking thinking that produces many answers to
  the same question - convergent thinking
  thinking that produces one correct answer
• Steps in the creative process- preparation-
  incubation- insight- evaluation- elaboration
• Characteristics of creative thinkers flexibility
  in thinking, inner motivation, willingness to
  risk and objective evaluation of work

57
Influence of heredity Environment

• Genetic Influences- genetic markers for
  intelligence (chromosomes 4,6, 22)- identical
  twins IQ are found to be most similar, followed
  by fraternal twins, and lastly siblings-
  identical twins reared together have higher
  correlation than identical twins reared apart -
  Adoption studies have been inconclusive -
  heritability the fraction of the variance in IQ
  in a population that is attributed to genetics-
  heritability of intelligence increases from
  childhood to adulthood- each childs heredity
  helps determine its environment- but also, each
  childs environment helps to determine how
  his/hers heredity is expressed

58
Influence of heredity Environment

• Environmental Influences- modifications in env.
  can change ones IQ considerably - middle-income
  parents were likelier to communicate with their
  young children than parents on welfare - how
  much the parents communicated with their young
  children in the first 3 years of their lives was
  correlated with the childrens IS scores at age 3
  - schooling also show effects on intelligence
  - theres worldwide rapid increase in IQ test
  scores- because the increase is occurring so
  rapidly, it cant be due to heredity but may be
  due to increasing levels of education received,
  or the explosion of info - butgrowing up with
  all the advantages doesnt necessarily guarantee
  success

59
Influence of heredity Environment

• Group Influences- Cross-cultural comparisons
  - N. America reasoning and thinking skills -
  Kenya responsible participation in family
  social life- Ethnic comparisons - e.g.
  aboriginal students tend to score 20 points lower
  on verbal scales and 5 points higher on
  performance scales of standardized intelligence
  tests when compared against white students
  - Gender comparison - the avg. scores of
  males and females dont defer on intelligence
  tests, but their scores variability differ -
  males score better than females in some nonverbal
  areas, such as ability to find synonyms for words
  

60
Motivation - Approaches

• Motivation why people behave/think/feel the way
  they do
• Motivated behaviour is energised, directed and
  sustained
• The Revolutionary Approach - instinct an innate
  biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to
  be universal throughout a species - believed
  that all behaviour involves instincts-
  motivation for aggression, achievement and other
  behaviours is rooted in our evolutionary past

61
Motivation - Approaches

• Drive Reduction Theory- drive an aroused state
  that occurs because of a physiological need-
  need a deprivation that energies the drive to
  eliminate/reduce the deprivation- states that
  as a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to
  reduce it - goal of drive reduction ?
  homeostasis homeostasis the bodys tendency
  to maintain an equilibrium- ? some disagree
  people often behave in ways that increase rather
  than reduce drive e.g. thrill-seeking to increase
  stimulation

62
Motivation - Approaches

• Optimum Arousal Theory- Yerkes-Dodson law
  performances is best under conditions of moderate
  arousal than under those of low or high
  arousal- therere times when low or high
  arousal produces optimal performance- as tasks
  become more difficult, the ability to be alert
  attentive but relaxed is critical to optimal
  performance- sensation seeking the motivation
  to experience varies, novel, complex and intense
  sensations and experiences- it also involves
  willingness to take risks just for the sake of
  such an experience

63
Motivation - Approaches

• The Cognitive Approach - believe that human
  beings are rational and aware of our
  motivation- stresses on our ability to examine
  our lives and become aware of what motivates us
  - intrinsic motivation based on internal
  factors, such as self-determination, curiosity,
  challenge and effort- extrinsic motivation
  involves external incentives, such as rewards and
  punishments

64
Motivation - Approaches

• Maslows Hierarchy of needs (bottom ? top)
• physiological
• these include the need for food, water and other
  vital things
• if these need are not met, the organism cant
  survive
• safety and security
• these needs refer to long term survival
• humans tend to seek out order and have a desire
  to live in a safe world
• belongingness and love
• people seek out love and affection from family
  and friends
• but the quality is influenced by more basic needs
  
• esteem
• People become concerned with self-esteem, which
  may be based on achievements that they earn, etc.
  
• self- actualization
• the highest and most difficult level to reach
• self-actualization is the need to fulfil ones
  own potential

65
Motivation - Hunger

• The Biology of hunger- gastric signals gastric
  activity is the basis for hunger- stomach can
  also send signals that stop hunger- stomach
  tells the brain how full it is, and how much
  nutrient is present - cholecystokinin starts the
  digestion of food, travels to the brain through
  blood, and signals to stop eating - glucose,
  insulin and leptin are involved in hunger, eating
  and satiety in blood chemistry- hypothalamus
  regulates hunger- lateral hypothalamus
  stimulates eating - ventromedial hypothalamus
  reduces hunger and restricts eating

66
Motivation - Hunger

• Eating Disorders- anorexia nervosa involves the
  relentless pursuit of thinness through
  starvation- typically begins in he teenage
  years, often following an episode of dieting
  the occurrence of life stress- most cases are
  with white adolescent or young adult females from
  well-educated, middle- and upper-income families
  that are competitive and high-achieving- unable
  to meet their own high expectations, they turn to
  something they can control their weight-
  bulimia nervosa the individual consistently
  follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern

67
Motivation - Sexuality

• The biology of sex - the hypothalamus, cerebral
  cortex, and limbic system- sex hormones
  estrogens androgens - the role of hormones in
  motivating human sexual behaviour is not clear,
  especially for females - human sexual response
  pattern consists of 4 phases ? excitement,
  plateau, orgasm and resolution
• Cognitive perceptual factors - sexual
  motivation is influenced by sexual scripts
  (stereotyped patterns of expectancies of how
  people should behave sexually) - the sensory
  system of touch (and sometimes vision) usually
  predominates during sexual intimacy

68
Motivation Social Cognitive Motives

• Achievement - need for achievement the desire
  to accomplish something to reach a standard of
  excellence- attribution theory states that
  individuals are motivated to discover the
  underlying causes of behaviour as part of their
  effort to make sense of it- goal setting,
  planning and monitoring
• Affiliation- need for affiliation the motive to
  be associated with other people
• (Subjective) Well-Being- 3 factors to qualify
  for well-being competence, autonomy
  affiliation - diff. aspects physical
  well-being, psychological well-being

69
Emotion The Biology of Emotion

• Emotion feeling that can involve physiological
  arousal, conscious experience, and behavioural
  expression
• Arousal - sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
  responsible for a rapid reaction to a stressor -
  parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) promotes
  relaxation and healing
• Neural Circuits Neurotransmitters - 2 pathways
  of the brain circuitry involving emotion (fear)
  - direct thalamus ? amygdala - indirect
  thalamus ? sensory cortex ? amygdala

70
Emotion Cognitive Behavoural Factors

• Two-factor Theory of Emotion emotion is
  determined by physiological arousal and cognitive
  labelling
• We look to the external world for an explanation
  of why we are aroused.
• We interpret external cues and label the emotion
• Behavioural Factors- facial feedback hypothesis
  facial expressions can influence emotions, as
  well as reflect them- facial muscles send
  signals to the brain, which help individuals to
  recognisize the emotion that they are
  experiencing

71
Emotion Sociocultural Factors

• Cultural and the Expression of Emotion- Darwin
  facial expressions of human are innate, not
  learnt, are the same in all cultures of the
  world- biological ties children blind from
  birth know how to smile- Many facial expressions
  of emotion dont differ significantly from one
  culture to another - display rules socioculture
  standards that determine when, where and how
  emotions should be expressed - some nonverbal
  signals appear to be universal indicators of
  certain emotions, while others differ
• Gender Influences- females and males often use
  the same facial expressions, adopt the same
  language, and describe their emotional
  experiences similarly

72
Emotion Classifying Emotion

• The Wheel Model with 4 dimensions-
  positive/negative, primary/mixed, polar
  opposites, and vary in intensity - view emotions
  as essentially innate reactions that require
  little cognitive interpretation
• Two-Dimensional Approach - positive affectivity
  (positive emotions) negative affectivity
  (negative emotions) - positive emotions
  increases the likelihood that individuals will
  interact with their environment and engage in
  activities - negative emotions carry direct and
  immediate adaptive benefits in situations that
  threaten survival

73

• ? End of Session ?
• Thank you all for coming!
• Best wishes in all your mid-terms