7 Policy Process Study: PolicyMaking Study

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7Policy Process StudyPolicy-Making Study
EDM 6209 Policy Study in Education
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Perspectives and Processes in Policy Studies
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Theories of the Policy-making Process

• The first generation of policy-making process
  theories
• Scientific-rational model
• Incrementalist model
• Garbage can model
• The second generation of policy-making process
  theories
• Comprehensive rational model
• The stages heuristic model
• New Institutionalism model
• The multiple stream model
• The discourse model

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Policy-making Theory I Comprehensive Rationalist
Perspective

• Comprehensive rational framework The
  ideal-typical framework
• Problem analysis
• Pathology control approach
• Desirability striving approach
• Comprehensive information gathering
• Solution analysis
• Best solution approach
• Satisfice approach

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Policy-making Theory I Comprehensive Rationalist
Perspective

• Harold Lasswells intelligence system for policy
  making
• Intelligence The stage of intelligence
  collection, which consists of
• Information of the status quo of the phenomenon
  to be intervene
• Information of causal relations among vital
  constituents in operation within the policy
  phenomenon
• Information of the feasibility of candidate
  solutions
• Cost-benefit analysis of candidate solutions

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Policy-making Theory I Comprehensive Rationalist
Perspective

• Harold Lasswells intelligence system for policy
  making
• Promotion The stage of considering the pros and
  cons of candidate solutions
• Prescription The stage of making decision on the
  prescription of the course of action to be taken
• Invocation The stage of laying down the rules
  and regulations based upon which the policy
  prescriptions can be invoked
• Application The stage of carrying out the course
  of action stipulated in the policy by the
  designated authority.
• Termination The stage of bringing the course of
  action to a close as designed
• Appraisal The stage of evaluating the
  effectiveness or/even efficiency of the policy
  measures.

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(Weimer Vining, 1992)

• PROBLEM ANALYSIS
• Understanding the problem
• Choosing and explaining relevant goals and
  constraints.
• Choosing a solution method.

SOLUTION ANALYSIS 4. Choosing evaluation
criteria 5. Specifying policy alternatives 6.
Evaluating predicting impacts of alternatives
and valuing them in terms of criteria 7.
Recommending actions.
(a) Receiving the problem assessing the
symptoms. (b) Framing the problem
analyzing market and government
failures. (c) Modeling the problem
identifying policy variables.
COMMUNICATION Conveying useful Advice to clients
INFORMATION GATHERING Identifying and organizing
relevant data, theories and facts using facts as
evidence about future consequences of current and
alternative policies.
Figure 8.1 A summary of Steps in the
Rationalist Mode
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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• Criticism on comprehensive rational framework by
  incrementalism and the introduction of political
  rationality into the policy process study
• Conceptual difference between political
  rationality and means-end rationality
• Means-end rationality refers to agency that a
  person acts in a conscious and knowledgeable way
  in which the attainment of his goal can be
  maximized in the real world. (Dahl Lindblom,
  1992, p.57)
• Political rationality refers to the agency that
  the person will make conscious and knowledgeable
  consideration of the political reality and its
  entailed constraints and opportunities, within
  which the maximization of the means-to-an-end /
  satisfice project is carried out.

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• New institutionalism can be characterized as
  approaches in social science developed in
  reaction to the behavioural perspectives that
  were influential during the 1960s and 1970s and
  all seeks to elucidate the role that institutions
  play in the determination of social and political
  outcome. (Hall Taylor, 1996, p. 936)
• As these approaches apply to public policy study,
  it emerges as a reaction to the means-end
  rational calculation model and argues that policy
  making process is not a pre-dominant rational
  calculating process. They asserted that policy
  making processes should be conceived
  predominantly as institutional processes hence
  they are by definition influenced if not
  determined by the features, structures and
  cultures of the institutions, in which the policy
  making processes are supposed to undergo.

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• Decision-making as rule following The logic of
  appropriateness
• James Marchs thesis of dual bases of decision
  making
• Decision-making as rational calculation of
  preferences and self-interests governed by the
  Logic Consequence
• Decision-making as rule following governed by the
  Logic of Appropriateness

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• Decision-making as rule following The logic of
  appropriateness
• Logic of appropriateness
• When individuals and organizations fulfill
  identities, they follow rules or procedures that
  they see as appropriate to the situation in which
  they find themselves. Neither preference as they
  are normally conceived nor expectations of future
  consequences enter directly into the calculus.
  (March, 1994, p. 57)

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• Decision-making as rule following The logic of
  appropriateness
• Three basic questions in decision-making under
  the logic of appropriateness (p.58)
• The question of recognition What kind of
  situation is this?
• The question of identity What kind of person am
  I? Or what kind of organization is this?
• The question of rules What does a person such as
  I, or an organization such as this, do in a
  situation as this?

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• Pluralism The simple institutional model
• The general political system model Pluralism as
  a theory of policy making or politics in general
  is generated from the political system model. In
  political system model, political process is
  characterized as input-process-output-feedback
  model.
• Pluralistic model characterizes the policy making
  with the following attributes
• Plurality of interest groups each with equal
  capacities in inputting political demands into
  the polity
• The polity processes the plurality of political
  demands in impartial and indiscriminant manner
• Plurality of administrative output to meet with
  plurality of political demands

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• The action arena model
• The action arena model reformulates the pluralist
  model by asserting that political actors in
  policy making process are not totally free and
  autonomous individuals but are confined in action
  arenas
• Actors in action arena are endowed with different
  resources and information. They also bring with
  different valuation into the arena. As a result,
  different actors may and mostly will select
  different course of actions.

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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• The action arena model
• Within an action arena a particular action
  situation will be constituted. The constituents
  of an action situation may includes
• The set of participants
• The specific positions to be filled by
  participants
• The set of allowable actions and their linkage to
  outcome
• The potential outcomes that are linked to
  individual sequence of actions
• The level of control each participant has over
  choice
• The costs and benefits, which serve as incentives
  and deterrents, assigned to actions and outcomes

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Physical/Material Conditions
Action Arena
Action Situations
Patterns of Interactions
Attributes of Community
Actors
Evaluative Criteria
Rules-in-Use
Outcomes
Figure 3.1 A Framework for Institutional
Analysis SOURCE Adapted from Ostrom, Gardner,
and Walker (1994, p. 37).
(Sabatier, 1999, Figure 3.1)
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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The new institutionalism framework of
  decision-making study
• The policy network model
• This model characterizes that policy actors
  in policy making process are not act separately
  and independently. They will form networks and
  communities on the base of common policy focus,
  shared policy stance, related vested policy
  interest.
• Advocacy coalition model
• This model further specifies that the
  networking among policy actors in policy making
  process by put forth the concept of advocacy
  coalition. It indicates that policy actors will
  form coalition in order to advocate a particular
  policy choice. These coalitions will subsequently
  constitute a stabilizing parameter or
  institutional inertia within a policy area.

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• RELATIVELY STABLE PERAMETERS
• Basic attributes of the problem area (good)
• Basic distribution of natural resources
• Fundamental socio-cultural values and social
  structure
• Basic Constitutional structure (rules)

Degree of consensus needed for major policy change
POLICY SUBSYSTEM Coalition A Policy Coalition
B Brokers
a. Policy beliefs b. Resources
a. Policy beliefs b. Resources
Strategy A1 re guidance instruments
Strategy B1 re guidance instruments
Constraints And Resources Of Subsystem Actors
Decisions by Governmental Authorities

• EXTERNAL (SYSTEM) EVENTS
• Changes in socio-economic conditions
• Changes in public opinion
• Changes in systemic governing coalition
• Policy decisions and impacts from other subsystems

Institutional Rules, Resource Allocations, and
Appointments
Policy Outputs
Policy Impacts
(Sabatier, 1999, Figure 6.4)
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Policy-making Theory II Political Perspective

• The state theory
• State theorists criticize pluralism and
  political system of treating the state as a
  blackbox or an impartial arbitrator of political
  demands. In replacement, they put forth different
  thesis on the natures and features of the modern
  state
• The instrumental-state perspective
• The corporatist-state perspective
• The derivative-state perspective
• (To be explicated in details in Topic 10)

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Policy-Making Theory III Multiple Stream Approach

• The approach grows out of the Garbage Can Model,
  which is another alternate policy-process model
  to the scientific-rational model in the 1970s.
  The primary assumption of the model is the
  emphasis on the ambiguity nature of the policy
  phenomena.
• By ambiguity, it refers to a state of having
  many way of thinking about the same circumstances
  or phenomena. (Feldman, 1989, quoted in
  Zahariadis, 1999, p.74) The concept of ambiguity
  differs from the concept of uncertainty, which is
  one of the constituent concept in rational model,
  is that uncertainty can be reduced or even
  eliminated by information and analysis of it,
  while ambiguity on policy phenomena cannot be
  reduced by information but in some case may even
  enhance it.

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Policy-Making Theory III Multiple Stream Approach

• Another essential assumption of the approach is
  that policy issues or even problems are not
  attended in an analytic-rational way as the
  scientific-rational model assumes. The
  garbage-can and multiple-stream models stress
  that the logic of approaching policy issue is
  temporal sorting and not rational choice.
• Who pays attention to what and when is
  critical. Time is a unique, scarce resource.
  Because the primary concern of decision-makers
  is to manage time effectively rather than manage
  tasks. It is reasonable to pursue a lens
  (approach) that accords significance to time
  rather than to rationality. (Zahariadis, 1999,
  p.74)

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Policy-Making Theory III Multiple Stream Approach

• John Kingdons three streams in policy making
• Problem It refers to the conditions or mechanism
  on which policy makers identify, define and take
  action on a policy problem. They include
• Indicators
• Dramatic events or crisis
• Feedback of existing programs
• Policy It refers to the conditions spawned from
  the policy issues or phenomena themselves. They
  include
• Policy ideas generated from policy communities
• The prospect of technical feasibility and value
  acceptability of the policy itself
• Politics It refers to the conditions grow out of
  the political environment. They include
• National mood
• Legislative and executive turnover

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Policy-Making Theory III Multiple Stream Approach

• John Kingdons three streams in policy making
• The conception of the coupling of the streams and
  the formation of policy window. Kingdon
  signifies that when the three streams are joined
  together at critical moments in time, they will
  constitute a policy window. As a policy
  window opens, it indicates that the policy issue
  will elevate into a policy agenda and sequent
  policy-making steps will materialized.

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Policy-making Theory IV Discourse Perspective

• In discursive perspective, policy making is
  construed as language game of persuasion and
  argumentation. Hence, policy-making studies are
  analyses of how different parties concerned
  frame, organize and possibly win the
  argumentation in a policy discourse.
• Formal argument model in policy analysis
• Constituents in formal argument model (William
  Dunn)
• Claim
• Information
• Warrant
• Backing
• Qualifier
• Rebuttal

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therefore
C
I
Claim affirms that the policy conclusion is true
Policy-relevant Information is the beginning of a
policy argument
since
W
C becomes I in a sequent argument
Warrant justifies the movement from I to C
The Logical Structure of Policy Argument
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therefore
C
I
Mother tongue Instruction (MTI) enhance
learning effectiveness
MTI for all in compulsory education
since
W
C becomes I in a sequent argument
Findings of International Studies in
Educational Achievement (IEA) for Science
The Logical Structure of Policy Argument
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therefore
C
Q
I
Qualifier indicates that the claim has a given
plausibility
Claim affirms that the policy conclusion is
true as qualified
Policy-relevant Information is the beginning of a
policy argument
unless
since
W
R
C becomes I in a sequent argument
Rebuttal indicates that special conditions,
exceptions, or qualifications to W, or I
reduce the plausibility of C
Warrant justifies the movement from I to C
because
B
Backing justifies W
The Logical Structure of Policy Argument
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therefore
C
Q
I
On what subjects? At what levels?
MTI for all in compulsory education
MTI enhance learning effectiveness
unless
since
W
R
C becomes I in a sequent argument
Not in English Not at more advanced levels
Findings of IEA for Science
because
B
Backing justifies W
The Logical Structure of Policy Argument
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therefore
C
Q
I
Most of independent States adopt MTI
MTI for all in compulsory education
MTI enhance learning effectiveness
unless
since
W
R
C becomes I in a sequent argument
Not in most of post-colonial states
UNESCO 1953 Document
because
B
Backing justifies W
The Logical Structure of Policy Argument
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Policy Argumentation Interpretive Approach

• Formal argument model in policy analysis
• Constituents in formal argument model (William
  Dunn)
• Claim
• Information
• Warrant
• Backing
• Qualifier
• Rebuttal
• Types of argumentative claims
• Designative claims on facts
• Evaluative claims on values
• Advocative claims on actions

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Policy Argumentation Interpretive Approach

• Interpretive approach to policy argument
• Deep description of arguments of different
  interpretive communities
• Constituents of the architecture of argumentation
  and the textuality of argumentative/persuasive
  texts
• Genre
• Frame
• Rhetoric
• Narrative

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The Conception of Genre in Critical Discourse
Analysis

• Concept of genre
• A genre is a group of texts that share specific
  discursive features. (Gill Whedbee, 1997,
  p.163).
• Genre means distinctions within convention
  between text types. (Fairclough, 1995, p. 13)
  More specifically, Fairclough defines genre as
  socially ratified way of using language in
  connection with a particular type of social
  activities, (Fairclough, 1997, p. 14) e.g.
  interview, narrative, exposition, argumentation,
  persuasion.
• Accordingly policy text and/or discourse can
  mainly be construed as argumentative and/or
  persuasive genre of text and/or discourse.

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The Conception of Genre in Critical Discourse
Analysis

• Concept of genre
• According to Richard Edwards and his associates
  persuasive text may take the following forms
• Deliberative genre It refers to policy discourse
  which is associate with policy and its future
  orientated and speculative. (Edwards et al.,
  2004, p.19) For example, in documents relating to
  recent education reform, they commonly refer to
  the future of global-informational economy and
  network society and how education reform should
  prepare students to fit into new species of
  flexible and workers and/or networkers.
• Forensic genre It refers to policy discourse
  which focuses on past events and attempt to
  provide an account that is taken to be true.
  (ibid) For example, the rhetoric of presenting
  data of declining standards in comparative
  educational research and statistics of falling
  competitiveness of national economy in global
  market can be construed as a kind of forensic
  genre.

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The Conception of Genre in Critical Discourse
Analysis

• Concept of genre
• According to Richard Edwards and his associates
  persuasive text may take the following forms
• Epideictic genre It refers to policy discourse
  which focuses on the contemporary. However, in
  epideictic genre one can usually find the notion
  of naming and shaming, publicly denouncing
  organizations and individuals who fail to meet
  the quality standards and inspection criteria to
  which they ar subject. (ibid) For example,
  blaming on teachers, naming negative value-added
  schools, and shaming failing schools.

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Conception of Frame in Policy Studies

• Law and Rein define frame as a way of
  representing knowledge, and as the reliance on
  (and development of) interpretative schemas that
  bound and order a chaotic situation, facilitate
  interpretation and provide a guide for doing and
  acting. (Law and Rein, 2003, p.173)

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Conception of Frame in Policy Studies

• The concept of frame finds its scholarly
  resonance in the well-documented concept of
  definition of situation in symbolic
  interactionism. As Law and Rein quote in length
  of Goffmans exposition
• I assume that when individuals attend to any
  current situation, they face the question What
  is going on here? Whether asked explicitly, as
  in times of confusion and doubt, or tacitly,
  during occasions of usual certitude, the question
  is put and the answer to it is presumed by the
  way the individual then proceeds to get on with
  the affairs at hand. (Quoted in Law Rein, p.
  175)

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Conception of Frame in Policy Studies

• The functions of frames in policy argumentation
  are to (Law Rein, p. 174)
• note a special type of story that focuses
  attention
• provide stability and structure by narrating a
  problem-centred discourse as evolves over time,
• define the boundary between evidence and noise,
• wed fact and value into belief about how to act

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Conception of Frame in Policy Studies

• Types of policy frame
• Rhetoric frame
• Action frame
• Policy action frame It refers to the frame an
  institutional actor uses to construct the problem
  of a specific policy situation.
• Institutional action frame It indicates the
  frame held by institutions. This signifies that
  as agents of thought and action, institutions
  possess characteristics point of view, prevailing
  system of beliefs, category scheme, images,
  routines and styles of argument and action, all
  of which inform their action frames. (Schon
  Rein, 1994, p.33)

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Conception of Frame in Policy Studies

• Framing HKSAR education reform
• Lifelong learning for employability and
  competitiveness
• Lifelong learning for social inclusion and
  political empowerment
• Framing Quality Education
• Quality for analytic-technical control
• Quality for communal understanding of trust and
  care
• Quality for potential emancipation
• Framing MOI policy
• MOI policy as issue of learning effectiveness
• MOI policy as issue of nation-building
• MOI policy as issue of social capital formation
• MOI policy as issue of human right

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Meanings of rhetoric Rhetoric has a long history
  in Western literary as well as philosophical
  traditions. It can be traced back to Aristotle.
• Aristotle defines rhetoric as the ability to
  see, in any given case, the available means of
  persuasion. (Aristotle, 1991, quoted in Gill
  Whedbee, 1997, p. 155)
• Wharley defines it as the findings of suitable
  arguments to prove a given point, and the
  skillful arrangement of them. (Whately, 1963,
  quoted in Gill Whedbee, 1997, p. 155)

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Meanings of rhetoric
• A dictionary definition of rhetoric is that it is
  the art of using language so as to persuade or
  influence others. (Edwards et al. 2004, p.3)
  Hence, Rhetorical analysis involves the study of
  the ways in which we attempt to persuade or
  influence in our discursive, textual and gestural
  practices. (Edwards et al., 2004, p.13) Hence,
  part of the job of the rhetoric analyst is to
  determine how constructions of the real are
  made persuasive (Simon, 1990 quoted in Edwards
  et al., 2004, p. 13) Here the question is not so
  much about whether reality matches rhetoric or
  not, but which fabrications of the real are more
  persuasive and why. (Edwards, et al., 2004,
  p.13)
• As for the case of educational discourse,
  rhetoric analysis aims to explore and reveal
  hidden rhetoric aspect to educational
  discourse. (Edwards et al., 2004, p. 9)

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Constituents of rhetoric performance It has been
  identified by analysts of rhetoric that there are
  several essential constituents for a rhetoric
  performance, i.e. to make rhetoric persuasive.
  They are
• Context Rhetoric by definition is pragmatic in
  nature, i.e. it responds to or interacts with
  societal issues or problems, and it produces some
  action upon or change in the world. (Gill
  Whedbee, 1997, p.161). Therefore, in order to be
  comprehended and/or critically analyzed the
  rhetoric in a policy text, it must be set against
  the context (temporal, socio-cultural and/or
  pragmatic contexts), in which it is derived.

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Constituents of rhetoric performance
• Exigence It refers to the way the issue and/or
  problem to be addressed in the rhetoric of a
  policy text are defined and formulated. For
  example, in recent education reforms, the most
  commonly used exigencies are either the decline
  of standards of students and school leavers or
  the threat of losing national competitiveness in
  global economic competitions.

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Constituents of rhetoric performance
• Audience It signifies the actual or figurative
  audience, whom the rhetoric of a policy text
  suppose to address or appeal to. For example, in
  recent education-reform documents, the audiences
  to be addressed are usually employers and/or
  parents rather than teachers and education
  professions. It indicates a sense of
  distrustfulness to professionals, who usually
  been depicted as the sourced of falling standard
  in education and/or falling competitiveness in
  national economy. Even within the audience of
  parents, they has been defined as consumers
  striving for individual gains rather than as
  citizens constituting common will and good for
  the society as a whole.

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Constituents of rhetoric performance
• Rhetor credibility It indicates the authorities
  of the speakers or writers of the texts, and/or
  the authorities that the rhetoric of a policy
  documents try to appealed to. For example, appeal
  to concepts as well as authorities of neo-liberal
  economists, such as Milton Friedman, in policy
  texts of education reform of liberalization is
  one of the most common practices in recent
  education reforms.
• Absence It has been underlined that one of the
  essential components in analyzing rhetoric is
  what is absent from or silenced by the text.
  (Gill Whedbee, 1997, p.169).

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Constituents of rhetoric performance
• Metaphor The essence of metaphor is
  understanding and experiencing one kind of thing
  in terms of another. (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980
  quoted in Edwards, 2004, p.25) In metaphoric
  analysis, it is claimed that human understanding
  is a metaphoric process the mind grasps an
  unfamiliar idea only by comparison to or in terms
  of something already known. Thus the metaphoric
  language in a text presents a particular view of
  reality by structuring the understanding of one
  idea in terms of something previously
  understood. (Gill Whedbee, 1997, p.173)
• For example, in the rhetoric of the
  neo-liberalism the education system is
  metaphorically prescribed as a market mechanism,
  a school as a input-output factory, students as
  materials to be processed and added on value,
  parents as choosing consumers, school principals
  as CEO, etc.

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Conception of Rhetoric in Policy Studies

• Constituents of rhetoric performance
• Iconicity Iconicity functions in a way that is
  similar to metaphor, iconicity rests on the
  intuitive recognition of similarities one field
  of reference (the form of language) and
  another. (Gill Whedbee, 1997, p.174) For
  example, HK school like to use celebrity
  graduates as rhetoric to indicate the quality of
  the school.

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Conception of Narrative in Policy Studies

• Conception of narrative in policy study
• Narrative can be defined as literal
  representation which takes the form of a
  storyline, i.e. with clear beginning,
  development, and end.
• It refers to the storyline that each
  interpretive community constructs, follows and
  put fore in a policy argumentation. It is a
  representation schema a interpretive community
  used to define their situation in the policy
  reality and organize their arguments.

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Conception of Narrative in Policy Studies

• The structure of narrative Numbers of scholars
  have tried to summarize the structure of a
  narrative. Here Hyden Whites formulation will be
  adopted
• Central subject The narrator or the main
  character in the story. In the case of policy
  argumentation, the central subject is a
  particular interpretive community/interest group.
• Plot
• It refers to the sequence of events selectively
  organized into a narrative by an interpretive
  community in the policy argumentation.
• It represents a structure of relationships by
  which the events contained in the account are
  endowed with a meaning by being identified as
  parts of an integrated whole (P.9)
• The plot of a narrative imposes a meaning on the
  events that make up its story level by revealing
  at the end a structure that was immanent in the
  events all along. (p.20)

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Conception of Narrative in Policy Studies

• The structure of narrative
• Closure
• It refers to the resolution, evaluation and even
  moral meaning elicited from the precedent
  sequence of events, i.e. plots.
• As White indicates a proper historical narrative
  achieves narrative fullness by explicitly
  invoking the idea of a social system to serve as
  a fixed reference point by which the flow of
  ephemeral events can be endowed with specifically
  moral meaning. (Hence), the chronicle must
  approach the form of an allegory, moral or
  analogical as the case may be, in order to
  achieve both narrativity and historicality. (p.
  22)
• As in the case of policy narrative, the closure
  performs the function of resolving the policy
  alternatives and/or conflicts, evaluating the
  policy choices, and attributing moral meanings to
  the policy conclusion. But most importantly these
  resolution, evaluation and attribution are all
  constructed according to the worldview and/or
  vested interest of the interpretive community
  concerned.

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Conception of Narrative in Policy Studies

• The structure of narrative
• Authority Narratives will usually be present in
  authoritative manner as if they are the
  establishment of facts, order and even truth

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Conception of Narrative in Policy Studies

• Narrative identity and decision-making by rule
  following
• By relating James Marchs institutionist
  thesis of decision-making by rule following with
  the interpretive approach to narrative identity
  of interpretive communities

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Conception of Narrative in Policy Studies

• Narrative identity and decision-making by rule
  following
• The conception of interpretive community can be
  construed as a community with a particular
  narrative identity on a policy issue
• As a result members of an interpretive community
  will follow the logic of appropriateness in
  making decision on policy issue
• Hence, they are most unlikely to approach the
  policy decision at hand in self-interest
  calculation orientation but to base the decision
  on the narrative identity of the interpretive
  community to which they have identified.

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Perspectives and Processes in Policy Studies
55
7Policy Process Study Policy-Making Study
END