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Title: Module 1 Introduction to Mitigation Under the UNFCCC


1
Module 1Introduction to Mitigation Under the
UNFCCC
  • The science of climate change.
  • Definition and scope of mitigation
  • Contributions of IPCC Working Group 3 (WG3) on
    mitigation in the Third Assessment Report (TAR).
  • The UNFCCC Guidelines on mitigation assessment.
  • The potential benefits of mitigation
  • Interactions between mitigation and development
  • Integrating mitigation and adaptation

2
Module 1a
  • The Science of Climate Change

3
Our Atmosphere is Changing
  • During the last century, the atmospheric
    concentration of greenhouse gases and their
    radiative forcing have continued to rise as a
    result of human activities.
  • Global average surface temperatures have
    increased by about 0.6 C.
  • Global average sea level has risen and ocean heat
    content has increased.
  • The balance of evidence suggests a discernable
    human influence on global climate (IPCC, SAR,
    1995)
  • There is new and stronger evidence that most of
    the warming observed over the last 50 years is
    attributable to human activities (IPCC, TAR,
    2001)
  • CO2 Concentrations and Global Average
    Temperatures Will Continue to Rise
  • Pre-industrial level 280 ppm
  • Current level 360 ppm
  • Level in 2100 700 ppm with large uncertainty

Source IPCC, 2001
4
Some Expected Impacts
  • Sea level projected to rise 0.09 to 0.88m by 2100
    with significant regional variations.
  • Extreme weather events are projected to increase.
  • Impacts on biodiversity generally negative.
  • Socioeconomic systems could show net economic
    benefits for small amounts of warming, but
    potentially large negative impacts under greater
    warming.
  • Increased water availability in some water-scarce
    regions, but decreased water availability in many
    water scarce regions.
  • Initially increased agricultural productivity in
    some mid-latitude regions, but decreased in the
    tropics and sub-tropics.
  • Significant disruptions of ecosystems from fire,
    drought, pest infestation, species invasion, etc.
  • Changes in productivity and composition of
    ecological systems, with coral reefs, boreal
    forests, arctic and montane regions being
    particularly vulnerable.
  • Increased risk of floods, potentially displacing
    tens of millions of people.
  • Increased incidence of heat stress mortality, and
    vector-borne diseases.
  • Some impacts effectively irreversible over many
    generations (thermohaline circulation, Ice
    sheets, migration of plant species).
    Thermohaline disruption is uncertain, but ice
    sheet melt and plant species migration are highly
    probable.

5
Developing Countries are the Most Vulnerable to
Climate Change
  • Impacts are worse - already more flood and
    drought prone and a large share of the economy is
    in climate sensitive sectors.
  • Lower capacity to adapt because of a lack of
    financial, institutional and technological
    capacity and access to knowledge
  • Impacts disproportionately upon the poorest
    countries and the poorest people, exacerbating
    inequities in health status and access to
    adequate food, clean water and other resources.

6
Adaptation
  • Has the potential to reduce adverse effects of
    climate change and can produce ancillary
    benefits, but cannot prevent all damages.
  • Numerous adaptation options have been identified
    that can reduce adverse and enhance beneficial
    impacts of climate change.
  • Greater and more rapid climate change would pose
    greater challenges for adaptation.
  • Lower levels of future GHG concentrations will
    make the adaptation challenge easier.

7
Stabilization of atmospheric CO2 will require
significant emissions reductions
Source IPCC
8
Energy Sector CO2 Emissions in 2000
Source IEA
9
Industrialized countries have emitted the most
anthropogenic CO2(Area proportional to
historical CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
combustion, 1900-1999)
Source WRI
10
In the future, the share of global GHG emissions
from NA1 parties will increase
2035 total emission estimate 11.71 billion tons
of carbon
1995 total emissions 6.46 billion tons of carbon
Source OSTP
11
Contributions of GHGs to Global Warming The
Last 100 Years
Contributions of GHGs to Global Warming The
1980s
Source CC Train, 1999
12
Attributes of Key GHGs
Other GHGs include industrial gases (e.g.) SF6,
other HFCs, and indirect gases (water vapor, Nox,
etc.)
13
Agricultural Sector Contributes 20 of
global anthropogenic GHG emissions
50 of global methane emissions from enteric
fermentation and rice paddies
70 of global N20 emissions from artificial
fertilizers
5 of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
consumption and biomass burning
14
Solid Waste and Waste Water Disposal
1990 Emissions 50-80 Mt CH4 Methane emissions
are due to anaerobic digestion of organic
material in landfills and sewage effluent.
15
Forest Sector Total CO2 Emissions from
Deforestation and Land-Use Changes 0.5-2.5 GtC
16
Module 1b
  • Definition and Scope of Mitigation Assessment

17
Definitions
  • Mitigation is defined as any anthropogenic
    interventions that can either reduce the sources
    of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (abatement) or
    enhance their sinks (sequestration).
  • In the context of the UNFCCC, a mitigation
    assessment is a national-level analysis of the
    various technologies and practices that have the
    capacity to mitigate climate change.

18
Time-Frame
  • Need to examine long-run opportunities for
    reducing carbon sources or enhancing sinks,
    bearing in mind the life-times of various
    appliances and systems.
  • Rate of technological change is closely related
    to the lifetime of capital stock.

Coal power 45 yrs
Motor vehicles 12 20 years
19
Scope
  • Includes energy demand and supply, forestry,
    agriculture, rangelands and waste management.
  • Includes analysis of the impact of options on the
    macro-economy.
  • Considers policies and programs that can
    encourage adoption of mitigation technologies and
    practices

20
Module 1c
  • The contributions of Working Group 3 (WG3) on
    mitigation in the IPCC Third Assessment Report
    (TAR)

21
Background on WG 3 Mitigation
  • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
    (IPCC) has three working groups
  • WG I to assess the Science of climate change
  • WG II to assess Impacts, adaptation and
    vulnerability
  • WG III to assess Mitigation of climate change
  • WGIII was charged by the IPCC Plenary for the
    Panels Third Assessment Report (TAR) to assess
    the scientific, technical, environmental,
    economic, and social aspects of the mitigation of
    climate change.

22
Major Topics Covered in WGIII Report on Mitigation
  • Greenhouse Gas Emissions Scenarios
  • Technological and Economic Potential of
    Mitigation Options
  • Technological and Economic Potential of Sinks
  • Barriers, Opportunities, and Market Potential
  • Policies, Measures, and Instruments
  • Costing Methodologies
  • Global, Regional and National Costs and Ancillary
    Benefits
  • Sectoral Costs and Ancillary Benefits of
    Mitigation
  • Decision Analytic Frameworks
  • Gaps in Knowledge

23
Chapter 2 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Scenarios
and Implications
  • This chapter reviews three scenario literatures
    general mitigation scenarios produced since the
    SAR, narrative-based scenarios found in the
    general futures literature, and mitigation
    scenarios based on the new SRES scenarios.
  • In addition, it provides recommendations for
    future research, including the need for more
    explicit analysis of policy instruments leading
    to mitigation, inclusion of other GHGs than CO2,
    and capacity building for scenario analyses in
    developing countries.

24
Chapter 2 GHG Emissions Scenarios
  • Scenarios represent plausible future worlds with
    particular economic, social and environmental
    characteristics
  • Mitigation scenarios are usually defined as a
    description and a quantified projection of how
    GHG emissions can be reduced with respect to some
    baseline scenario.
  • Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES)
    Four scenario families. Each family has a
    unifying theme in the form of a storyline or
    narrative that describes future demographic,
    social, economic, technological, and policy
    trends

25
Qualitative Directions for SRES Scenarios
26
Chapter 3 Technological and Economic Potential
GHG Emissions Reductions
  • Describes technologies and practices to reduce
    greenhouse gas emissions in the end-use sectors
    of the economy as well as through changes in
    energy supply.
  • Concludes that while there is significant
    potential for GHG emissions reductions in every
    sector considered, appropriate policies is
    required to realize the potential.

27
Chapter 4 Options to Enhance, Maintain, and
Manage Carbon Sinks
  • Assesses biological and geo-engineering
    mitigation measures to capture carbon in
    terrestrial ecosystems, focusing on the physical
    mitigation potential, ecological and
    environmental constraints, economics, and social
    considerations.
  • Concludes that by 2010 mitigation in LULUCF
    activities can lead to significant mitigation of
    CO2 emissions while complementing other land
    management objectives. Geo-engineering is not
    ready for near-term application.

28
Chapter 5 Barriers, Opportunities, and Market
Potential of Technologies and Practices
  • Discusses the barriers that slow the transfer and
    penetration of technologies and practices that
    have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
    emissions.
  • Also discusses theories and models to understand
    technological and social innovation and its
    drivers and implications.
  • Topic addressed in Module 4.

29
Chapter 6 Policies, Measures, and Instruments
  • Examines the major types of policies and measures
    that can be used to mitigate net GHG
    concentrations in the atmosphere.
  • In addition to economic dimensions, political,
    economic, legal, and institutional elements are
    considered insofar as they are relevant to the
    discussion of policies and measures.

30
Chapter 7 Costing Methodologies
  • Addresses methodological issues that arise in the
    estimation of the monetary costs of climate
    change.
  • The focus is on the correct assessment of the
    costs of mitigation measures to reduce the
    emissions of GHGs.
  • Includes discussion of technologically rich
    bottom-up models and more aggregate top-down
    models, which link the energy sector to the rest
    of the economy.
  • Concludes with recommendations for further
    research while contending that much progress has
    been made since the SAR.

31
Chapter 8 Global, Regional, and National Costs
and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation
  • Examines the literature on the costs of
    greenhouse gas mitigation policies at the
    national, regional, and global levels.
  • Net welfare gains or losses are reported,
    including (when available) the ancillary benefits
    of mitigation policies.
  • These studies employ the full range of analytical
    tools described in Chapter 7.
  • Concludes that the cost estimates of stabilizing
    atmospheric CO2 concentrations depend upon the
    concentration stabilization target, the emissions
    pathway to stabilization and the baseline
    scenario assumed.

32
Chapter 9 Sector Costs and Ancillary Benefits
of Mitigation
  • Reviews the research on the cost implications and
    ancillary benefits of mitigation strategies
    across sectors, including
  • Top-down studies that capture general effects on
    the economy and tend to consider price-driven
    policies such as carbon taxes rather than
    technology policies.
  • Bottom-up studies that examine technology-driven
    options and financial cost-benefit analyses of
    individual mitigation measures.

33
Chapter 10 Decision-making Frameworks
  • Provides a critical appraisal of policy-oriented
    analyses and summarizes the emerging insights in
    a form that allows policymakers to make informed
    judgments.
  • Considers the special features of climate change
    in the context of how they affect decision-making
    in different frameworks.
  • Suggests that mitigation, adaptation, and
    learning activities should be carefully crafted
    over time but that mitigation action at any level
    should start in the near term.

34
Main WGIII ConclusionsNature of the Mitigation
Challenge
  • Climate change is a problem with unique
    characteristics
  • Global, long-term, involves complex interactions
    between climatic, environmental, economic,
    political, institutional, social, and
    technological processes
  • Alternative development paths can result in very
    different GHG emissions (e.g., SRES)
  • Climate change mitigation will both be affected
    by, and have impacts on, broader socio-economic
    policies and trends
  • Differences in distribution of resources are key
    considerations (i.e., equity concerns)
  • Lower emissions scenarios require different
    patterns of energy resource development

35
Module 1d
  • The UNFCCC Guidelines on Mitigation Assessment

36
The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC)
  • Came into force in 1994 signed by over 150
    countries.
  • Overall framework for intergovernmental efforts
    to tackle climate change. 
  • Recognizes that climate is affected by
    anthropogenic emissions of GHGs.
  • Seeks stabilization of GHG concentrationsat a
    level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
    interference with the climate system (Article 2)
  • Parties
  • expected to take precautionary measures to
    anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of
    climate change and mitigate its adverse effects
    (Article 3).
  • have common but differentiated responsibilities
    based on their national circumstances.
  • gather and share information on GHG emissions,
    national policies and best practices.
  • launch national strategies for addressing
    greenhouse emissions and adapting to expected
    impacts, including the provision of financial and
    technological support to developing countries. 
  • cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the
    impacts of climate change.
  • The Conference of Parties (COP) is the highest
    decision-making authority of the Convention.

37
UNFCCC Parties
  • Annex I members of OECD in 1992 economies in
    transition (EIT).
  • Annex II OECD members of Annex I. Required to
    provide financial resources to enable developing
    countries to undertake emissions reduction
    activities and to help them adapt to adverse
    effects of climate change. Must also "take all
    practicable steps" to promote development
    transfer of environmentally friendly technologies
    to EITs and developing countries.
  • Non-Annex I (NA1) are mostly developing
    countries.
  • Certain countries recognized as being especially
    vulnerable to climate change, including countries
    with low-lying coastal areas and those prone to
    desertification and drought. Others are more
    vulnerable to the potential economic impacts of
    climate change responses (e.g. fossil fuel
    exporting nations).
  • The 48 least developed countries (LDCs), are
    given special consideration under the Convention
    on account of their limited capacity to respond
    to climate change and adapt to its adverse
    effects.

38
Status of National Communications
  • National communications have become an important
    tool for bringing climate change concerns to the
    attention of policy makers at the national level.
  • In 2002, COP8 in India adopted a set of new and
    improved guidelines for national communications
    (17/CP.8).
  • By July 2005, initial national communications had
    been presented to the COP by 125 NA1 parties,
    and second national communications had been
    presented by 3 NA1 parties.
  • In the next phase of the Convention in which the
    focus is increasingly on implementation, national
    communications will become an important strategic
    tool to help countries align their interests and
    priorities to the overall goals of the Convention.

39
Reporting Commitments
  • Article 4, p.1, and Article 12, p.1, of the
    convention provide for each Party to report to
    the COP
  • information on its emissions by sources and
    removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not
    controlled by the Montreal Protocol (greenhouse
    gas inventories)
  • national or, where appropriate, regional
    programmes containing measures to mitigate, and
    to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate
    change (general description of steps taken or
    envisaged by the Party to implement the
    Convention)
  • any other information that the Party considers
    relevant to the achievement of the objective of
    the Convention.

40
Guidelines for National Communications
Preparation for non-Annex I Parties
  • Adopted in 2002, at COP8. Principal objectives
  • to assist NA1 Parties in meeting their reporting
    requirements
  • to encourage the presentation of information in a
    consistent, transparent, comparable and flexible
    manner
  • to facilitate the presentation of information on
    support required for the preparation of national
    communications
  • to serve as policy guidance to the operating
    entity of the financial mechanism of the
    Convention, for the timely provision of financial
    support needed by NA1 Parties in order to fulfill
    their reporting requirement
  • to ensure that the COP has sufficient information
    to carry out its responsibility for assessing the
    implementation of the Convention by Parties.

41
Information to be Includedin NA1 Party National
Communications
  • National inventory of anthropogenic emissions by
    sources and removal by sinks of all greenhouse
    gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol
  • A general description of steps taken or envisaged
    by the Party to implement the Convention
  • Any other information that the Party considers
    relevant to the achievement of the objective of
    the Convention and suitable for inclusion in its
    communication, including, if feasible, materials
    relevant for calculations of global emission
    trends.

42
National Circumstances for NA1 Parties
  • NA1 parties should provide a description of
    national and regional development priorities,
    objectives and circumstances, on the basis of
    which they will address climate change and its
    adverse impacts.
  • This may include information on geography,
    climate and economy which may affect their
    ability to deal with mitigating and adapting to
    climate change, as well as information regarding
    specific needs and concerns arising from the
    adverse effects of climate change and/or the
    impact of the implementation of response
    measures.
  • NA1 parties are encouraged to provide a summary
    of relevant information regarding their national
    circumstances, as appropriate, in tabular form.
  • NA1 parties may provide a description of existing
    institutional arrangements relevant to the
    preparation of their national communications on a
    continuous basis.

43
Mitigation Guidelines (1)
  • Each NA1 Party shall communicate to the COP a
    general description of steps taken or envisaged
    by the Party to implement the Convention, taking
    into account its common but differentiated
    responsibilities and its specific national and
    regional development priorities, objectives and
    circumstances. (25)
  • NA1 Parties may provide information on programmes
    containing measures to mitigate climate change by
    addressing anthropogenic emission by sources and
    removals by sinks of all GHGs not controlled by
    the Montreal Protocol, and measures to facilitate
    adequate adaptation to climate change, following
    the provisions in these guidelines. (26)

44
Mitigation Guidelines (2)
  • The extent to which developing country Parties
    will effectively implement their commitment to
    communicate this information will depend on the
    effective implementation by developed country
    Parties of their commitments under the Convention
    relating to financial resources and transfer of
    technology. (27)
  • Each Party shall provide to the COP information
    on steps taken or envisaged for formulating,
    implementing, publishing and regularly updating
    national and, where appropriate, regional
    programmes containing measures to mitigate
    climate change and any other information they
    consider to be relevant. (37)

45
Methodological Approaches for Mitigation
  • Based on national circumstances, NA1 Parties are
    encouraged to use whatever methods are available
    and appropriate in order to formulate and
    prioritize programmes containing measures to
    mitigate climate change this should be done
    within the framework of sustainable development
    objectives, which should include social, economic
    and environmental factors. (38)
  • In their assessment of these programmes on
    various sectors of the economy, NA1 Parties may
    use the appropriate technical resources. (39)
  • Such as Technologies, Policies and Measures for
    Mitigating Climate Change (IPCC Technical Paper
    I) GHG Mitigation Assessment A Guidebook by the
    US Country Studies Program Climate Change 2001
    Mitigation (Contribution of Working Group III to
    the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC).

46
Reporting
  • Based on national circumstances, NA1 Parties are
    encouraged to provide, to the extent their
    capacities allow, information on programmes and
    measures implemented or planned which contribute
    to mitigating climate change by addressing
    anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals
    by sinks of all GHGs not controlled by the
    Montreal Protocol, including, as appropriate,
    relevant information by key sectors on
    methodologies, scenarios, results, measures and
    institutional arrangements.

47
Module 1e
  • Potential Benefits of Mitigation Activities

48
The Benefits of GHG Mitigation
  • Primary GHG emissions abatement reducing global
    climate change.
  • Co-benefits non-climate benefits explicitly
    incorporated into the creation of GHG mitigation
    policies.
  • Ancillary benefits side-effects that arise
    subsequent to any proposed mitigation policy
  • E.g. reductions in local and regional air
    pollution, associated with the reduction of
    fossil fuels, and indirect effects on issues such
    as transportation, agriculture, land use
    practices, biodiversity preservation, employment,
    income and fuel security.

49
Mitigation Could Provide Local Benefits
  • Local environmental protection.
  • Poverty alleviation
  • Reduce fossil fuel consumption
  • Improve technological base.
  • Increase in technological efficiency and
    effectiveness,
  • Improvements in the security and availability of
    power supply.
  • Reduction in road congestion with a shift from
    private to public transport.
  • Increase in employment resulting from mitigation
    projects.
  • Strengthening of institutional, systemic and
    human capacity.

50
Potential Levels and Scope
  • Global, regional and country level.
  • Short, medium and long term.
  • Scope of the approach general (aggregated)
    benefit and sector benefit
  • Identification of key benefit by sectors energy
    and non energy.

51
Some Key Challenges
  • Identification, estimation and valuation of
    mitigation benefits.
  • Relation between mitigation and sustainable
    development

52
Different Tools, Policies, Measures and
Instruments
  • Global Kyoto Protocol.
  • Country level emissions, carbon, or energy
    taxes, subsidies, deposit-refund systems,
    voluntary agreements, permits (tradable and
    non-tradable), technology and performance
    standards, product bans, direct government
    spending, including RD investment.
  • Regional level tradable quotas, joint
    implementation, clean development mechanism,
    harmonized emissions, carbon or energy taxes,
    quotas, international technology and product
    standards, voluntary agreements, and direct
    international transfers of financial resources
    and technology.

53
Module 1f
  • Interactions between mitigation and development

54
Development will be Undermined by Climate Change
  • The Challenge
  • Poverty 1.3 billion people live on less than 1
    per day and 3 billion people on less than 2 per
    day. Top 20 income group uses 86 of resources,
    while bottom 20 uses under 1.3
  • Food 800 million people malnourished today --
    food production needs to double in the next 35
    years
  • Water 1.3 billion people without clean water 2
    billion without sanitation
  • Energy 2 billion people without electricity
  • Environment 1.4 billion people exposed to
    dangerous levels of outdoor pollution and even
    larger number exposed to dangerous levels of
    indoor air pollution and vector-borne diseases
  • Shelter many live in areas susceptible to civil
    strife, environmental degradation, and natural
    disasters

55
Developing Countries are the Most Vulnerable to
Climate Change
  • Impacts disproportionately on the poorest
    countries and people, who have contributed least
    to GHG emissions exacerbates inequities in
    health status and access to adequate food, clean
    water and other resources.
  • Net effects negative in most developing
    countries, but mixed for developed countries for
    warming up to a few ºC.
  • A warming of greater than a few ºC is likely to
    result in net effects becoming negative for most
    countries

56
An integrated climate change-sustainable
development strategy is essential
Emerging Viewpoint
Source Adapted from Munasinghe, 2005
57
Sustainable Development Domain
Climate Domain
Climate Change Stresses
Human and Natural Systems
Climate System
Adaptation
Adaptive Capacity
Feedbacks
Feedbacks
Non-climate Stresses
Econ.
Soc.
Envir.
Radiative Forcing
Feedbacks
Feedbacks
Different Socio-economic Development Paths
Atmospheric GHG Emission and Concentration
Scenarios
Feedbacks
Mitigative Capacity
Mitigation
Human Actions Causing GHG Emissions
Source Munasinghe, 2005
58
CO2 and Development
20000
10000
5000
Indonesia
Source WBCSD 2005
OECD
Emissions by sector, kg CO2 per capita per year
(2001)
Non-OECD
59
Goals of Energy Development
Energy sector development focuses on enhancing
  • access to clean energy services
  • 1.6 billion people do not consume any
    electricity, and very little kerosene or LPG
  • Household energy consumption is 212 kgoe/cap
    (compared to 651 kgoe/cap in industrialized
    countries) about 25 comes from biomass used
    traditionally
  • quality of the local environment
  • Indoor air pollution kills 2 million women and
    children prematurely
  • Only 15 of cities in developing countries have
    acceptable urban air quality

60
Energy and Poverty
  • The poor typically spend a greater fraction of
    their income on indispensable energy services,
    such as cooking, than do the rich.
  • At the same time, they frequently forgo (or
    compromise severely on) services like lighting
    and space heating that require energy carriers
    (e.g., electricity) and devices (e.g.,
    fluorescent lights) to which they either dont
    have access, or whose first costs tend to be
    unaffordable.

61
Goals of Energy Development
Energy sector development focuses on enhancing
  • economic productivity
  • Non-household energy intensity in developing
    countries is 0.36 kgoe/-GDP (compared to 0.19
    kgoe/-GDP in industrialized countries)
  • Competitiveness and opportunity costs of supply
    expansion drive energy efficiency initiatives
  • security of energy supply
  • Energy imports are a large fraction of exports
  • Volatility in international prices leads to
    macroeconomic instability

62
Module 1g
  • Integrating Mitigation and Adaptation

63
Integrating Mitigation and Adaptation
  • UNFCCC identifies two separate options for
    addressing climate change mitigation and
    adaptation.
  • There are increasing calls to better integrate
    these two fields.
  • Because of long lag times in the climate system,
    no mitigation efforts will be able to prevent
    climate change.
  • Conversely, reliance on adaptation alone would
    lead to a large magnitude of climate change, to
    which it would be very expensive to adapt.

64
Synergies
  • Synergies exist when measures that control GHG
    concentrations also reduce adverse climate
    impacts.
  • E.g. urban tree planting provides both
    sequestration and reduces heat stress.
  • Significant downside of placing too much focus on
    seeking synergies
  • Implementation of synergistic measures can
    involve great institutional complexity
  • Opportunities for synergistic measures are
    probably very limited compared to the overall
    challenges of each field.
  • Many synergistic measures may not be a wise
    investment in terms of mitigation and adaptation
    benefits.
  • Risks that activities will be labeled as both
    mitigation and adaptation activities to make them
    more attractive for funding thereby diminishing
    overall effectiveness of how climate funds are
    spent.

65
Mixing Mitigation and Adaptation
  • Seeking an optimal mix of activities may be a
    poor approach given uncertainties about climate
    change and the widely differing interests, values
    and preferences of stakeholders.
  • Seeking robustness is probably a better approach
    to decision making.
  • Mainstreaming is an emerging approach that
    seeks to integrate policies and measures that
    address climate change into ongoing sectoral and
    development planning and decision making so as
    ensure long-term sustainability and reduce
    vulnerability to both current and future climate.
  • Currently, institutions are not well adapted to
    support this type of integrated approach.

66
Possible Topics for Discussion
  • What is the proper role of mitigation in the
    development plans of the least developed
    countries?
  • What are the differences between pursuing
    mitigation and adaptation policies?
  • What is the role of the U.N. National
    Communications Support Programme (NCSP)?
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