EDU 2462 Biophysical Foundations of Human Movement 1

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EDU 2462 Biophysical Foundations of Human
Movement 1

• Lecture 8 PSYCHOLOGY, SPORT EXERCISE II

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.html
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Leadership
Photo from http//sportsillustrated.cnn.com/rugby
/1999/world_cup/news/1999/11/09/weekend6_rdp/index
.html

• An influence process, the dynamics of which are
  a
• function of the personal characteristics of the
  leader,
• his/her followers and the nature of the specific
  
• situation. (Richard E. Greenlaw)
• The art of getting someone else to do something
• you want done because they wanted to do it.
  (Dwight D Eisenhower)

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• Arthur G. Jago (1982) proposed a framework that
  organizes leadership theories based on each
  theory's focus and approach.
• "Focus" refers to whether leadership is viewed as
  a set
• of traits or as a set of actions.
• Focus on Traits Theories with such a focus see
  leaders as having certain innate or inherent
  personality traits that distinguish them from
  non-leaders. These personality traits are
  supposed to be relatively stable and enduring.
• Focus on Behavior Theories with this type of
  focus see leadership as observable actions of the
  leader instead of personality traits.
• "Approach" is concerned with whether a particular
  theory or model of
• leadership takes a universal or a contingent
  perspective.
• Universal Approach This approach believes that
  there is a universal formula of the traits or
  behaviour for an effective leader. In other
  words, the universal approach assumes that there
  is "one best way" to lead in all situations.
• Contingent Approach Contrary to the universal
  approach, the contingent approach does not
  believe the "one best way" formula. It believes
  that effective leadership depends on the specific
  situation.
• Source http//psychology.about.com/library/weekl
  y/aa040102a.htm

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Are Leaders born, made, chosen or called
upon? Factors Involved in Leadership
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Relationship of Factors involved in Leadership
Capacity opportunity without ability
Capacity ability without opportunity
Capacity, opportunity, ability
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• Guidelines for Identifying and Using your
  Captain
• dont overlook anyone
• captain has ability to take charge
• leaders are often found in completely
• unexpected sources. Let everyone have the
• chance to assume leadership roles.
• use captain to the fullest extent within the
  limitations of their personalities. Often the
  captain can motivate players better than the
  coach.
• divide responsibilities between coach and
  captain (and perhaps call upon captain to suggest
  further divisions of responsibilities among
  players with leadership potential)
• cooperate with your captain neither should
  disregard the other.
• provide incentives and rewards for players to
  become leaders. Appreciate and encourage them.

Photo http//news.bbc.co.uk/sport/low/english/in_
depth/2001/lions_down_under/newsid_1438000/1438942
.stm
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Team Cohesion

• The degree to which the members of a
• group desire to remain in a group.
• (Cartwright,1968)
• Composed of such elements as team
• spirit, togetherness, teamwork, unity of
• purpose, closeness.
• Research has shown that high personal
  attraction and cohesiveness are effective in team
  success and that programmes aimed at increasing
  interpersonal skills between teammates can
  enhance team performance (DiBernardinis et al,
  1983). Such a programme might involve group
  activities such as goal-setting, task-content
  determination, and performance evaluations
  (Hughes et al, 1983).
• Research does not prove that team cohesion
  improves performance however it does suggest that
  improved performance increases team cohesion.

• http//uk.sports.yahoo.com/010827/59/c2ao4.html

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• Research has also suggested that coaches who
  were
• perceived as high in training and instruction,
  democratic
• behaviour, social support, and positive feedback,
  and
• low in autocratic behaviour, had teams that were
  more
• cohesive.
• To promote team spirit and cohesion the
  following
• coaching behaviours are important
• Conduct training sessions which are viewed as
• important and high in productive training time.
• Emphasize skill instruction for all athletes
• in the group.
• Stress positive feedback.
• Involve athletes in decision-making, opinion
  casting, and
  responsibilities. (Gardner, 1996)

Photo from Ron Graber http//hometown.aol.com/rgr
aber/page.html
http//www.hawkzone.com/photogallery/mens_bball.sh
tml
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• To develop team cohesion, teams must develop
• mutual respect among players and coaches
• effective communication
• a feeling of importance, as a group and as
  individuals
• common goals
• fair treatment

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Post-Performance Debrief

• Feedback is essential to improved performance.
• In many cases, the information provided to the
• learner by their performance re their
• performance is incomplete and another source of
  information is necessary. This supplementary
  information is labeled Augmented Information
  Feedback and often the provider of this is the
  performers coach.
• After every competition, the performer and the
  coach should review the
• performance and preparation looking to review 2
  questions
• What planned strategy items were omitted?
• these become the focal points for inclusion and
  expansion of next strategies.
• What planned items were used but proved
  inadequate?
• Appropriate changes are made

• Photo from www.footballculture.net/photos/team_ta
  lk1.html

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• This process needs to be done as close as
  practicable to the end of the event as delays can
  reduce the significance of the procedures as the
  athletes recall and evaluation can be reduced
  (although too soon can be an emotional time for
  the performer and coach, so it is up to the
  coachs discretion as well, video footage may
  require analysis first etc.)
• Debriefing helps to refine strategies to the
  point where the athlete feels competent in their
  adaptability to given situations.
• Things to look for as a coach during practices
  and performances

• plateaus in performance
• form slumps
• staleness
• burnout
• lack of motivation

• commitment
• conflict of interest
• information overload
• mind sets
• situational blocks

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Review of Practice Performance

• Practice sessions should allow for some kind of
  review of procedures and activities
  intermittently for coach and performer evaluation
  of their effectiveness.
• Practices should have objectives and be planned.
  However, the effective coach should be able to
  recognise if an activity is not having the
  desired effect and be able to adapt to resolve
  this.
• Post-competition should involve a physical,
  emotional and mental review.
• Physical ? includes such things as warm down,
  shower, replenishing fluids (esp. water), medical
  treatment, relaxing etc.
• Emotional ? release of stresses and tensions
  accumulated during competition eg. Music,
  meditation, talk with teammates etc.
• Mental ? reflecting on whether pre-competition
  objectives were achieved. Usually best to allow
  emotions to subside before this review
• can be done effectively.

The coach, too, must review his/her pre-, during
and post-competition actions, strategies and
objectives to evaluate their effectiveness,
propriety, attainability etc.
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Self-Confidence

• Sport can be both enormously effective in
• improving self-worth, and highly
• destructive in damaging it. Where sport is used
• creatively, with emphasis on enjoyment,
• effective goal setting and monitoring of
• achievement of goals, it can build self-
• confidence as targets are reached and
• improvement in performance is noted.

http//news.bbc.co.uk/sport/hi/english/photo_galle
ries/newsid_1760000/1760196.stm

• Where children are compelled to participate in
  a sport for which they have no aptitude, this can
  be immensely destructive to self-confidence as
  failure and lack of self-worth are consistently
  reinforced. Coaches should ask themselves whether
  they are prepared to take moral responsibility
  for inflicting this damage, even if numbers are
  needed to make up a team.

Photo from http//cbs.sportsline.com/u/ce/multi/0
,1329,2853724_182185,00.html
Source http//www.mindtools.com/selfconf.html
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• Self-confidence belief an individual has in
  their ability to succeed
• - belief in self and own capabilities
• - reflection of own self-worth
• Self-efficacy - belief an individual possesses in
  their ability to execute behaviours to
  accomplish a specific task

Source http//www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/effica
cy.html
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• Factors influencing self-confidence and
  self-efficacy
• mastery experience feeling of competence re
  activity
• vicarious experiences modelled behaviours,
  imagery
• verbal persuasion positive external talk
  encouragement from significant others (eg.
  parents, peers, coach)
• goal appropriateness goals should be
  achievable so that self-efficacy is enhanced
  via accomplishment
• physiological states - feeling energised and
  aroused.
• (Based on Vealey et als 1998 research) the
  athletes rated, first, achievement (includes
  self-mastery and demonstration of ability),
  second, self-regulation (includes physical/mental
  preparation and physical presentation), and
  third, climate (includes social support, coaches'
  leadership, vicarious experience, environmental
  comfort and situational favourableness) in order
  of perceived priority as the most important
  sources of improving sport confidence.
• Luke Behncke (2001) Self-Regulation A Brief
  Review
• Source http//www.athleticinsight.com/Vol4Iss1/Se
  lfRegulation.htm

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The best thing about HPE is that performance
feedback is immediate and public. The worst
thing about HPE is that performance feedback is
immediate and public.
- Dave Robinson
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Burnout Source http//www.mindtools.com/burnout.
html
Photo http//www.tennis.com/display.cfm?articleid
1617

• In a sporting context, burnout occurs when a
  previously
• highly motivated and committed participant loses
  interest and
• desire to play or compete.
• Generally, this afflicts people who are
  particularly driven,
• hard-training, and achievement-oriented who
  become physically, mentally
• and/or emotionally exhausted.
• This can occur because
• you find it difficult to say 'no' to additional
  commitments or responsibilities
• someone has been under intense and sustained
  pressure for some time
• a perfectionist coach does not delegate
• someone is trying to achieve too much
• someone has been giving too much emotional
  support for too long
• Often it will be manifested by reduced
  motivation, poor training attitude and
  performance results or a complete withdrawal from
  participation altogether.

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• Symptoms of Burnout
• Burnout will normally occur slowly, over a long
  period of time. It may
• express itself physically or mentally. Symptoms
  of burnout are
• Physical Burnout
• Feelings of intense fatigue
• Vulnerability to viral infection
• Immune breakdown
• Mental Burnout
• Feeling of lack of control over commitments
• An incorrect belief that you are accomplishing
  less
• A growing tendency to think negatively
• Loss of a sense of purpose and energy
• Increasing detachment from relationships that
  causes conflict and stress, adding to burn-out

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ralian_open/newsid_1783000/1783605.stm
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If in Danger of Burnout

• Get the support of your friends and family in
  reducing stress
• Ensure that you are following a healthy
  lifestyle
• Get adequate sleep and rest to maintain your
  energy levels
• Ensure that you are eating a healthy, balanced
  diet - a bad diet can make you ill or feel bad.
• Get adequate regular aerobic exercise
• Limit your caffeine and alcohol intake
• Perhaps develop alternative activities such as
  a relaxing hobby to take your mind off problems
• Acknowledge your own humanity remember that
  you have a right to pleasure and a right to
  relaxation

• Re-evaluate your goals and prioritise them
• Evaluate the demands placed on you and see how
  they fit in with your goals
• Identify your ability to comfortably meet these
  demands.
• If you are over-involved, reduce the
  commitments that are excessive
• If people demand too much emotional energy,
  become more unapproachable and less sympathetic.
  Involve other people in a supportive role. You
  owe it to yourself to avoid being bled dry
  emotionally.
• Learn stress management skills
• Examine other areas in your life which are
  generating stress, such as work or family, and
  try to solve problems and reduce the stress

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The Zone
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• Regarded as the peak of an athletes performance
  where he/she plays to the best of their ability.
  Skills are performed autonomously and fluidly.
  Options taken all appear to be the right ones and
  challenges presented appear to be easily handled.
  Almost a state of grace, it is considered to
  occur in a heightened state of consciousness.
  Thos players who have been there claim to have
  greater vision of the field/court/other players
  and often declare that others appeared to be in
  slow-motion. Often they express surprise that
  the game is over so quickly and disappointment
  that they couldnt keep on playing that day
  (Halberstam, 2001)
• (The Zone is) a special place where
  performance is exceptional and consistent,
  automatic and flowing. An athlete is able to
  ignore all the pressures and let his or her body
  deliver the performance that has been learned so
  well. Competition is fun and exciting.
• (Murphy, 1996)

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Two theories underpin the idea of the Zone.
These are FLOW THEORY These dimensions are
listed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) as deemed
necessary for the occurrence and continuation of
the Zone
(e) sense of potential control (f) loss of
self-consciousness (g) altered sense of time
and, (h) autotelic (self-rewarding) experience.

• clear goals and feedback
• (b) balance between challenges and skills
• (c) action and awareness merged
• (d) concentration on task

 REVERSAL THEORY (Apter, 1982, 1989). Posits an
explanation of the zone in terms of
metamotivational states (modes or mental states
in which an individual's motives are structured,
interpreted and organised within experience) and
reversals (switches between modes).
 Specifically, individuals are thought to
experience the zone as an optimal relaxing telic
(from the Greek word "telos" meaning goal or end)
or exciting paratelic ("para" being the Greek
word for beside or alongside) metamotivational
state. A range of personal and situational
factors is conceptualised to influence telic or
paratelic zone states. Source
http//www.athleticinsight.com/Vol1Iss3/Empirical_
Zone.htm
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The zone is that unique place that indicates one
is in the right physical, emotional and mental
space.  The five keys to open up the zone are
confidence, focus, pleasure, calmness, and
excitation.  One needs to learn to think
kinaesthetically and visually.  One needs to
master the art of calmness despite feeling great
pressure and excitation.  These are some to the
keys to arriving at that very pleasurable and
unforgettable place known as the zone.  
Tom Ferraro (2000) The Zone and Golf Athletic
Insight http//www.athleticinsight.com/Vol1Iss3
/Golf_Zone.htm
Gilchrist enjoys "outrageous" performance JOHANNES
BURG, (AFP) - Adam Gilchrist hit the fastest
recorded double century in Test cricket as
Australia took total control on the second day of
the first Test against South Africa at the
Wanderers Stadium
Photo http//www.angelfire.com/mi/Gilly/ Headline
and Leader http//www.espnstar.com/jsp/cda/crick
/aid135006cricket_newsdetail.html
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Psychological Effects of Physical Activity

• Studies on the psychological effects of exercise
  have found that regular physical activity can
  improve your mood and the way you feel about
  yourself. Researchers also have found that
  exercise is likely to reduce depression and
  anxiety and help you to better manage stress.
• US National Institute of Health
  http//www.niddk.nih.gov/health/nutrit/pubs/physac
  t.htm
• Cardiovascular exercise can result in
  significant and measurable improvements in
  psychological function, with a host of benefits,
  including decreased anxiety and depression, less
  fatigue and confusion and elevated vigor.
  Research shows that exercise is an important
  component of mood self-regulation, and that just
  a brisk five-minute walk can produce increased
  feelings of energy. Participating in an exercise
  program can increase self-esteem as well, improve
  body acceptance, and even help you eat better!
  The positive effects last well beyond the
  exercise period.
• Cornell University Health Services
  http//www.gannett.cornell.edu/vs/get.html
• Regular exercise has been shown to reduce
  anxiety, depression and insomniaExercise can
  raise self-esteem, help reduce weight, and divert
  ones attention to positive pursuits. Physical
  exercise also appears to act specifically to
  stretch tense muscles, deepen breathing and alter
  a person's biochemistry to promote mental health.
  
• Tigay,B. Exercise Mental Health
  http//www.planetpsych.com/zSelf_Help/exercise.htm
  
• Check textbook pp.377-379 for more effects of
  exercise on psychology

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Children in Sport Recommendations Source
European Federation of Sport Psychology
http//www.psychology.lu.se/FEPSAC/Position2.htm

• Childrens sport should be organised with the
  prime objective of enhancing the well-being of
  the child.
• Those involved in childrens sport should
  understand that children are not mini-adults.
• A subculture of childrens sport should be
  created with its own rules and systems for
  competition.
• Children should be offered opportunities for
  varied practice in many sports, and early
  specialisation should be avoided.
• A mastery motivational climate should be created
  for childrens sports by emphasising personal and
  self-improvement goals, and stressing enjoyment,
  the learning and development of new skills,
  cooperation, and feelings of autonomy.
• Adults should have a caring and accepting
  attitude towards the child and, when appropriate,
  emphasise independence and collaboration in
  decision-making by the children.
• Coaches should have regular contact with the
  parents of children in their charge. For those
  children in high-level sport, parents should be
  an integral part of the athletes support team.
• Adults involved in childrens sport should have
  opportunities for receiving education on
  childrens needs and development in sport.
• Adults should learn to recognise signs of
  potential problems, such as anxiety or eating
  problems, and seek expert assistance where
  necessary.

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Further Reading

• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/preventburnout
  .html
• - burnout in youth sport prevention article
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/guidepar.html
  
• - guidelines for parents re youth sport
• http//psychology.about.com/library/weekly/aa04010
  2a.htm - excellent source for leadership theories
• http//www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/efficacy.html
  - self efficacy page
• www.geocities.com/Colosseum/Arena/2513/ice/burnout
  .htm - avoiding burnout 
• http//www.tandl.vt.edu/rstratto/CYS/CoachMar02.ht
  ml - reducing youth sport drop-out (Coaching
  Youth Sports e-newsletter)
• http//www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/1998/ascpub/cod
  esofbehaviour.asp - Aussie Sports Codes of
  Behaviour
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/pers.html -
  athletes and personality type
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/coaches.html
  - coaches and athletes self-esteem
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/athletes.html
  - learning disabilities and athletes
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/precomp.html
  - pre-competition routines in sport
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/dealloss.html
  - poor performance de-brief strategies
• http//www.shpm.com/articles/sports/cohesion.html
  - goal-setting and team cohesion