Review for Final Exam

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Review for Final Exam

• CNE/ART 354
• April 27, 2006

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Definitions

• Archaeology the study of past societies through
  their material remains in an effort to
  reconstruct the lifeways of the people
  responsible for those remains.

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Methods

• Excavation
• controlled destruction of a site
• Learn a lot about a little (single or group of
  structures, limited in area or time)

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Methods

• Surface Survey
• Examination of a region by topographical
  reconnaissance
• Learn a little about a lot
• Diachronic, regional, interdisciplinary
• Addresses questions of settlement patterns,
  demographics, agriculture, animal husbandry, and
  land use.

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Nature of Archaeological Data

• It meshes with other information about the past
  such as literary sources.
• 4 features of archaeological data
• Independent not interfered with directly by
  people as literary evidence is. Physical laws
  govern its modification (ex. in stratigraphical
  evidence the earliest material is at the base of
  the site, unless pushed up for some reason
  earthquake, etc.).
• Direct when you excavate a grave, you uncover
  the result of an action that took place long ago.
• Experimental questions can be anwered.
• Expansive in the future, more excavations and
  surveys can add to present findings/knowledge.

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Archaeological Data

• Must be interpreted.
• Comparison textual material has already been
  interpreted once, by the original author modern
  readers then re-interpret it.
• Archaeological data must be structured and
  controlled, weighed together with literary
  evidence.
• Ideal dialogue between the two sets of data to
  tell us something new.

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Example

• Herodotos tells us that the Greeks were involved
  in Egypt in the reign of Amasis, c. 569 BCE.
• 3 things happened
• Amasis gave the city of Naukratis to the Greeks
  to settle.
• Greek trade was concentrated on Naukratis, to the
  exclusion of all other sites.
• Later, Amasis withdrew the Greeks to Memphis.

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Archaeological Data

• Shows that Greek material at Naukratis goes back
  to the 7th century.
• Greek pottery has been found at a number of sites
  as well as Memphis.
• This data needs to be put together with
  Herodotos account for a more accurate picture.
• Archaeological data can supplement or replace
  literary evidence.
• Surface survey gives us information about rural
  settlements, something seldom mentioned in
  literary texts.

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Archaeological Data Helps With

• Chronology (carbon dating, dendrochronology,
  etc.)
• Understanding political history (what did a polis
  actually look like?
• Military history (ex. hoplite revolution - Chigi
  vase, 7th c. evolution of weapons at
  sanctuaries Macedonian sarissa, etc.)
• Social history (rise of the polis)
• Economic history (trade routes, shipwrecks,
  coinage)
• Cultural history/history of art (social meaning
  of objects such as kouroi/korai)
• When we have no literary evidence, archaeology is
  the only evidence for all of the above.

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Chronological Review

• Palaiolithic period
• First remains of human habitation in Greece.
• Tools handaxe found out of context in
  Palaiokastro in N. Greece.
• Human (Neanderthal) skull Petralona Cave.
• Nomadic hunter-gatherers
• Seasonal settlements in caves, rock shelters,
  open sites by rivers and lakes.

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Mesolithic Period (c. 7000)

• Characterized by more finely worked stone tools.
• Important site from Palaio-Neolithic Greece
  Franchthi Cave in the Argolid - unique for the
  information it gives about the millenia from the
  end of the Ice Age to the spread of the Neolithic
  farming economy.

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Franchthi Cave

• 2 important finds
• Deep sea fish remains (technological advance in
  the Mesolithic period)
• Obsidian (journeys on rafts to Melos, 90 miles
  away 3000 years before the island was settled).

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Neolithic Revolution

• Came into Greece most likely from Anatolian
  settlers who brought a new way of life new
  settled lifestyle of farming.
• Cultivation of grains, domestication of animals.
• Development of pottery for different purposes.

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Neolithic Type Sites

• Sesklo and Dhimini on the Thessalian plains.
• Rise in population and the beginnings of social
  complexity as seen in architecture (Dhiminis
  central house), beginnings of craft
  specialization as seen in pottery.

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The Bronze Age

• Circa 3,000, copper metallurgy develops. By EBII
  (2500) bronze technology develops (alloy of
  copper and tin/arsenic), perhaps from Anatolian
  settlers.
• Cultural interaction among groups in southern
  Greece, Cyladic islands, Ionian islands, and Asia
  Minor.
• EBA is a time of international spirit also a
  prehistoric arms race as many coastal sites are
  fortified for defense with the same type of
  weapons begin found all over the Mediterranean.

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Typical EBA Cycladic Artifacts

• Frying pan of baked clay with spiral decorations
• Marble figurines which perhaps had cult functions

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Fortified Site Example

• Lerna - rounded protuberances in fortification
  wall.
• House of Tiles large central building used for
  storage/trade/control of commodities. Evidence
  for increasing social complexity and
  stratification.

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Destructions between EH II and EH III

• Mainland material culture changes.
• Drop in cultural sophistication in architecture
  and pottery.
• Small irregular apsidal houses no more
  sauceboats.

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EBA Crete

• EM II period of great prosperity.
• Type site Vasiliki
• Largely self-sufficient site, pursued agriculture
  and stock rearing. Architecture suggests
  egalitarian community.

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EBA Crete

• Other evidence for egalitarian social structure -
  Mesara tholoi tombs no distinct variation in the
  way people were buried.

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Late EM

• End of EBA Knossos begins to show evidence of an
  organizational shift to palatial civilization
• Big jump in population
• Large integrated complexes of buildings with
  monumental features and storage facilities
  (hypogeum).
• Beginning of largescale social storage.

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MBA Crete

• By 2000 first palaces appear at Knossos,
  Phaistos, and Mallia.
• Palaces surrounded by large and rapidly growing
  urban settlements.
• Redistributive economy allows for greater craft
  specialization.
• Trade with Egypt NE developed.
• Villas arose.

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MBA Mainland Cyclades

• Site Malthi
• Acropolis, fortification wall to protect flocks,
  large but poor village.
• Tumuli burials suggests they held people of
  special status. Beginning of greater social
  stratification?

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End of MBA-Beg. LBA

• Shaft Grave period at Mycenae.
• Sudden appearance of elite tombs, showing sharp
  distinction in wealth centralization of power.
• Warrior group seized power, establishing
  hierarchical society based in great fortress
  citadels? Wealth through trade monopoly?

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MBA Cyclades

• Marble figurines disappear.
• Islands increasingly influenced by Crete in art,
  use of Linear A.
• Thera frescoes.

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LBA Crete

• Stirrup jars become important for carrying liquid
  commodities around the Aegean.
• Minoan palaces end c. 1450, but Knossos carries
  on under Mycenaean control Linear B documents
  and new styles in art, weapons, burial.

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Fall of Mycenaean Civilization the Ensuing Dark
Age

• 1200-1050 series of destructions all over the
  Mycenaean world (and Mediterranean).
• Loss of fine sculpture and largescale
  architecture, loss of writing, fine pottery and
  frescoes, metalwork.
• Discontinuity, depopulation, impoverishment.
• Dark Age Type site Karphi on Crete. Shift from
  agriculture to transhumant stock rearing, semi
  nomadic lifestyle.
• 1100-1000 migrations to Asia Minor. Old Smyrna
  house remains.

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Examples

• Karphi
• Old Smyrna House

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Iron Age

• Protogeometric on.
• By 11th c more organized and confident way of
  life emerged.
• No evidence that power extended beyond small
  individual settlements.
• People lived in small houses (mudbrick and
  thatch) in a subsistence economy, controlled by
  landowning elite.

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Lefkandi

• 1st monumental architecture since the fall of
  Mycenaean civilization.
• Shows evidence of trade contacts with Egypt and
  Near East.

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Iron Age 3 Stages

• Use of iron for non-functional objects (BA)
• Technological shift after 1200 (tempering and
  quenching) leads to functional objects.
• Economic shift after 1050 we start to see
  widespread use of iron by 900 the true IA
  begins, with iron used for everything, everywhere.

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Rise of the Polis

• By 8th c. whole regions coalesced into large
  political entities.
• Polis both the city itself and surrounding
  countryside.

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Rise of the Polis

• Polis marked out the ideological base (temple in
  city-center) and boundaries (temples hero cults
  in rural areas).
• Change in identification from blood/clan to
  social group (citizenship).

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Types of States

• Polis is a feature of eastern Greece. Urban
  center surrounding countryside which had total
  autonomy. Example Athens
• Ethnos state (loose tribal confederation) is a
  feature of western Greece. These states are
  diverse, with no single form of constitution the
  role of urban centers within them varied greatly.
  Settlement structures ranged from a high degree
  of urbanization and local autonomy (ex. Boiotia
  collection of small poleis) to scattered small
  villages with little urbanization (ex. Aitolia).

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Material Evidence for Polis Idea

• Ian Morris burial patterns.
• Earlier pattern only elite got archaeologically
  visible burial.
• 800-750 more people gained the right to this as
  citizens.

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Colonization

• Poleis send out colonies in the Archaic Period
  (8th-6th c.), both east and west.
• 2 major causes desire for trade expansion and to
  protect trade routes search for metals.

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Internal Polis Organization

• Agora assembly place
• Market
• Political center with governmental offices
• Commercial area
• Legal center
• Theatrical center
• Cultic area

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Agora

• At Athens formally defined by 500 BCE with horoi
• Marked out the area as reserved for public
  functions

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Origin of the Greek Alphabet

• In the mid 8th century, Greeks adapted the
  Phoenician script into an alphabet, used it to
  record Greek, especially poetry.

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Temple Architecture

• Begins in the latter 8th century.
• Housed the cities patron deities, marked
  ideological centers.
• 2 orders of architecture Doric and Ionic.

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Sanctuary of Hera at Perachora

• About 200 years later than Lefkandi
• Fragments of a terracotta model of a shrine
  found.
• Apsidal plan with single room, central door
  behind porch supported by 2 wooden posts.
• Mudbrick, thatch.

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8th c. Heraion on Samos

• Long thin mudbrick building with central row of
  wooden posts to support the roof.
• Later temple plan existed from 650 with a
  peristyle and double row of wooden columns in
  front.

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Temple of Apollo at Thermon

• Has a colonnade, cella with columns, Doric order
  columns, formalization of the triglyph and metope
  plans.
• Terracotta metopes.

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Temple of Artemis at Corcyra

• c. 600 - 580.
• Doric temple realized in stone
• Monumental architecture meant to impress.
• Monumental stone architecture appears at same
  time as monumental stone sculpture, inspired by
  Egyptian contacts.

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Domestic Architecture

• Example Athens
• Average house was small a series of rooms
  grouped around a central courtyard which provided
  light and air.
• Few external windows, 1 or 2 doors with
  controlled sight lines.
• Polis ideology in architecture.

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Urban Planning

• Grid planning associated with Hippodamos, who
  replanned his city, Miletos on a grid plan after
  its destruction in the Ionian revolt.
• Olynthos. Standard blocks with 10 houses.
• New classical cities laid out on Hippodamian
  principles.

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Sculpture

• 7th c. first relatively largescale sculptures
  appear such as the Daedalic style Mantiklos
  bronze and female terracotta figurines.
• Small, mold made, mass produced, inspired by NE
  models.
• Widely distributed across Med. world.
• Sculptors turned to stone inspired by Egyptian
  art.

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Lady of Auxerre

• Stone statuette
• 25 inches high
• Limestone
• Enlargement of Daedalic style terracottas

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Nikandre

• c. 625
• First life-sized Greek statue we have.
• Dedicated to Apollo on Delos by an elite Naxian
  woman.
• Thin, rectangular plank (8 inches thick).
• Triangular face, frontal pose.

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Kouroi

• First male figures in marble are lifesized.
• c. 600
• Uses Egyptian grid of proportions but modifies
  the Egyptian pose.
• Nude
• Idealized, ideological blanks for elite ideals
• Votives, grave markers

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Kritias Boy

• Breaks the kouros pose
• c. 475
• Weight shifts to back leg, head turns slightly
• No archaic smile, formal symmetry, rigidity.
• Statue has come to life.
• New uncertainty?

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Hollow Cast Bronze Statues

• Lost wax technique developed, c. 530
• Revolutionized stances possible.
• Riace bronzes, c. 475-450 show new formula of
  relaxed pose developed further, refined.

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Polykleitos

• Developed theory of proportions which he
  expounded in a book, the Canon.
• He illustrated it with his Doryphoros, c. 440.
  Torso is fully responsive to motion.

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Lysippos

• Developed a new system of proportion long narrow
  bodies, smaller heads.
• Apoxyomenos, c. 350-325. Radical naturalism.
• Profoundly influenced Hellenistic sculpture.

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5th Century

• Athens dominated the political scene.
• Perikles building program on the Acropolis
  symbolized this.
• Parthenon sculptures.

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4th Century Change

• Rise of Macedon.
• Philip imposed his monarchy on the Greek poleis.
• Macedonians spoke a different language, had a
  pastural economy, and a monarchy.

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Macedonia

• Important sites Vergina, Aigai, Pella.
• Tombs at Vergina/Aigai, capital moved to Pella.
• Mosaics show the adoption of Greek styles and
  themes.

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Portraiture

• Role portrait ex. Perikles. Idealized
  representation of his qualities as general and
  politician.
• Personality portrait ex. Alexander.

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Coinage

• 5th c. Athens coins featured a symbol of the
  group (owl).
• 4th c. Macedonian coins featured Alexander as
  Herakles, a single man as group symbol.

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Alexander Iconography

• Inclination of head to the left
• Melting gaze
• Large watery eyes
• Leonine hair
• Lionskin alludes to Macedonian claim to be
  descended from Herakles.

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Polis Ideal

• Polis ideal was supplanted by the rise of the
  individual.
• Rise of military mercenaries.

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Alexanders Campaigns

• Profoundly changed history.
• Carried Greek culture as far as Afghanistan and
  NW India.
• Important cities Dura-Europos and Ai-Khanoum,
  which have the plans of Greek poleis.
• After Alexanders death successors created 3
  kingdoms Seleucids in Asia Minor, Ptolemies in
  Egypt, Antigonids in Macedonia.
• By 31 BCE Rome had taken all these over.

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Characteristics of Hellenistic Culture

• Obsession with Tyche (personal and city). Tyche
  of Alexander. Tyche of Antioch pyramidal
  structure with closed, twisting form.
• Theatricality in architecture Pergamon -
  emphasis on the overall dramatic effect of the
  natural and architectural setting and in art
  Issos mosaic - dramatic reversal of fortune and
  Altar of Zeus at Pergamon - Hellenistic baroque
  style.

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Characteristics of Hellenistic Culture

• Concern with the individual (portraiture, rise of
  mystery cults such as at Samothrace and healing
  cults of Asklepios).
• Cosmopolitan Greeks now interacted on a daily
  basis with foreigners idea grows of a common
  nature and common interests that unite all
  people. Art Dying Gaul portrayed realistically.
• Scholarly mentality ex. Homer relief you need
  to decode works.

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Sculpture

• Two types of pose
• Closed (Tyche of Antioch)
• Open (Dancing Faun)
• Drapery depiction of drapery under drapery
  (Baker Dancer) rather than classical body under
  drapery.
• Tanagra Figurines miniature terracottas, mold
  made and brightly painted with twisting pose.
  Made in 2 or more sections (technological
  advance). Depict ordinary women in everyday life
  (traveling, talking with friends, etc.). Found in
  graves.

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Sculpture
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Coming of Rome

• Rome consolidated Greece into 3 different
  administrative areas, each with a capital city.
• Rome created new urban centers and forced
  populations to leave old ones.
• Countryside was depopulated (fewer and larger
  sites).
• Romans set up monuments in traditional Greek
  arenas (Aemilius Paulus victory monument at
  Delphi).

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Coming of Rome

• Romans also changed inner polis organization
  created new marketplace in Athens (agora of
  Caesar and Augustus) and filled in the original
  Agora with the temple of Ares and an Odeion.
• New propaganda torso of the deified Hadrian (117
  CE) chestplate shows Athena supported by the
  wolf of Rome, suckling Romulus and Remus.

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In Sum

• We have seen major social changes identified by
  their material remains and how this
  archaeological data is used and interpreted to
  tell us about the Greek cultures which made them,
  from the Old Stone Age through the Roman
  conquests.