Understanding How College Students Learn

1
Understanding How College Students Learn

• A guide to teaching todays college students

2

• Teaching in the absence of learning is just
  talking.
• Thomas Angelo

3
What Optimizes Students Learning?

• The answer-Learner Centered Teaching
• Being a learner-centered teacher means focusing
  attention squarely on the learning process
• What the student is learning
• How the student is learning
• The conditions under which the student is
  learning
• Whether the student is retaining and applying the
  learning
• How current learning positions the student for
  future learning.
• ( Maryellen Weimer, 2002)

4
What Optimizes Students Learning?

• Firsthand experiences
• Multisensory experiences
• When the learning is important to the learner
• When the learning is relevant to the learner

5
What Optimizes Students Learning?

• When the learning is challenging to the learner
• When the learning is authentic
• When the learning is engaging
• When the learner has some choice and say in the
  learning

6
Part One What is Learning

• Definition of Learning
• Learning is a change in the neuro-patterns of the
  brain
• (Ratey, 2002)

www.bris.ac.uk/.../2002/ images/er1.jpg
7
A Teachers Definition of Learning

• Robert Bjork, UCLA, Memory and Metamemory
• The ability to use information after significant
  periods of disuse
• And the ability to use the information to solve
  problems that arise in a context different ( if
  only slightly) from the context in which the
  information was originally used

8
The Purpose of Learning

• The simple purpose to learn anything is to be
  able to use it in the future (David Sousa)

https/.../uploads/ Museum20Concepts202.jpg
9
The Brain and Learning

• The key message about the brain is this The
  neurons that fire together wire together (Hebb,
  1949, Ratey 2002)

10
The Brain and Learning

• Meaning that the more we repeat the same actions
  and thoughtsthe more we encourage the formation
  of certain connections and the more fixed the
  neural circuits in the brain for that activity
  become. (Ratey, 2002 pg 31)

graphics.fansonly.com/.../ gregg03action.jpg
11
The Brain and Learning

• Use it or lose it Is the corollary if you
  dont exercise brain circuits, the connections
  will not be adaptive and will slowly weaken and
  could be lost. (Ratey 2002, pg.31)

www.pge.com/.../PGE_dgz/ images/body/1-4bi.jpg
12
The Brain and Learning

• The brain is an analog processor, meaning,
  essentially, that it works by analogy and
  metaphor.
• It relates whole concepts to one another and
  looks for similarities, differences, or
  relationships between them. (Ratey, 2002, pg.5)

13
The Brain and Learning

• The brain is nothing like a computer
• Instead, the brain is largely composed of maps,
  arrays of neurons that apparently represent
  entire objects of perception or cognition, or at
  least sensory or cognitive qualities of those
  objects such as color, texture, credibility, or
  speed.( Ratey, 2002, pg. 5)

14
Part Two Students Attitudes towards Learning
www.rcc.edu/Students/images/4045.jpg
15
How do Students See Formal School Learning?

• 13-15 years of experiences about school has
  taught them
• 1. Teachers makes most/all of the
  learning/teaching decisions
• 2. The teacher is the authority
• 3. The teacher tells the students what to do
• 4. The teacher has the right answers

16
How do Students See Formal School Learning?

• Students learn what they are told to learn
• Students are given few choices in what to learn
• Students are given few choices in how to learn
• Grades are very very important
• Grades are more important than learning

17
How do Students See Formal School Learning ?

• Students Self-theories about Learning
• Entity Theorist
• Incremental Theorist

18
Entity Theorist

• Entity Theory (C.Dweck, 2000)
• Students view intelligence and ability as
  fundamentally fixed and unchangeable
• This is the predominant perspective found among
  high school students by (Steinberg 1996) and in
  college students by (Covington 1992)

19
Entity Theorist

• 85 of all high school students hold this belief
  about some aspects of their learningmostly in
  academic areas not so in co-curricular
  activities (Steinberg 1996)
• For Entity theorist failure becomes direct
  evidence of their incompetence and the rationale
  for withdrawing from future challenge
• Entity students believe people either get it or
  they dont

20
Incremental Theory

• Incremental Theory ( C. Dweck, 2000)
• Students view intelligence and ability as
  changeable and contingentmalleable like clay
• Look at failure as feedback to help in making
  changes

21
Incremental Theory

• Covington suggest that their self theory is
  probably the central issue in determining a
  students goal choice and their attitude toward
  failure
• An orientation that sees failure as the enemy to
  be avoided produces a response of helplessness in
  potential learning situations and thus repeatedly
  and systematically inhibits learning

22
How do Students See Formal School Learning?

• Any change in what students experiences have
  taught them school is supposed to be are met with
  skepticism, discomfort and even hostility
• They see the teacher as You are not doing your
  job

23
Part ThreeStudents Readiness for Learning

• Our obligation is to teach those who arrive in
  our classroom not those who we wish had taken
  our class
• The ACT composite score of Ferris students ranges
  from 17 to 36this is a 70 percentile range

24
Readiness to Learn

• Working memory doesnt maturewhen something is
  brand new it is like being in kindergarten again

25
Cognitive Readiness of Learners

• 18-25 vs. 26-65
• Dualism
• Use of discrete, concrete and absolute categories
  to understand people, knowledge and values.
• See instructor as the authority that should "tell
  me what I need to know"
• Low tolerance for ambiguity.

26
Cognitive Readiness of Learners

• 18-25 year olds
• Multiplicity
• Acknowledge that there are multiple perspectives
  to a given problem or topic.
• There can be more than one right answer

27
Cognitive Readiness of Learners

• Relativism
• Recognizes that knowledge is contextual and
  relative.
• Can evaluate their own ideas and others
• Authorities no longer defied but valued for their
  expertise.

28
Cognitive Readiness of Learners

• Commitment in Relativism
• Realize the need to endorse their own choices
  from the multitude of truths that exist in a
  relative world
• Recognize of diverse personal themes in ones
  life much of this may occur after college.
  (Baxter-Magolda)

29
Other Factors that Influence Cognitive Readiness

• Depth and Breadth of Experience
• Self theoriesEntity or Incremental
• Learning and Study Strategies

30
Social and Emotional Readiness

• The following slides are based on the work of
  Elkhonon Goldberg from his book The Executive
  Brain-- Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind 2001

www.neuroskills.com/ images/frontal.jpg
31
Social and Emotional Readiness

• Importance of the learning
• Motivation for the learning
• Willingness to contribute to the learning
• Discipline needed for the learning
• Ability to see relevance in the learning
• Ability to manage time
• Respect for self and others
• Ability to deal with challenge and failure

32
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• The prefrontal cortex of the brain plays the
  central role in forming goals and objectives and
  then in devising plans of action required to
  attain these goals.

ada.k12.oh.us/goals.gif
33
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• It selects the cognitive skills required to
  implement the plans, coordinates these skills,
  and applies them in a correct order.

www.4webmarketing.biz/ images/been/picture-west
34
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• Finally, the prefrontal cortex is responsible for
  evaluating our actions as success or failure
  relative to our intentions

www.jointhealing.com/.../ sports/ski-jumping.jpg
35
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• The prefrontal cortex may not become completely
  developed until a person is 25 (Robert Sylwester,
  2002)
• Until then emotional decision making is often
  used

36
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• Human cognition is forward-looking, proactive
  rather than reactive. It is driven by goals,
  plans, aspirations ambitions and dreams, all of
  which pertain to the future not the past.
• These cognitive powers depend on the frontal
  lobes and evolve with them

37
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• Most students have learned vertical decision
  making as a result of attending 12 years of
  public education
• Vertical meaning dealing with finding the truth
  or right answer

www.the7thfire.com/images/ SIGNS-keep_right.jpg
38
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• However, most of lifes decisions are adaptive
  decisions
• Dealing with ambiguity
• Choosing from all of the options which are good
  or best for me

39
Understand When and in What Ways Students become
Adult Learners

• Students most often have learned to resolve
  ambiguous situations by making decisions by trail
  and error

40
Part FourRecognition of Patterns

• James Ratey in his book The Users Guide to the
  Brain offers this simple description of the human
  brain the brain is a pattern seeking device

www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/Library/brain.gif
41
Patterns are a Key

• The way in which a student organizes new
  information - the degree to which she can create
  meaningful and familiar patterns is a key to
  retaining the information.
• The information must be integrated into our
  permanent conceptual scheme

42
FOR EXAMPLE

• Try to remember the following
• 15084972637

43

• Now try again
• 1- [phone]

44

• Try to remember these letters
• LSDNBCTVFBIUSA

45

• Now try again
• LSD NBC TV FBI USA

46
Recognition of Patterns

• Helping students to see or discover the patterns
  that exist in the information that we teach is a
  vital part of helping them to become successful
  learners.
• As students discover the patterns within
  information it moves their learning from
  memorizing isolated bits of data or information
  to meaningful understandings of how ideas and
  concepts are formed or fit together.

47
Background Information

• New learning needs to be connected to old
  learning
• The amount of old learning (background)
  information often determines the ease or
  difficulty of a new learning situation

48
Background Information

• The teaching tools that help teachers to connect
  to their students backgrounds are
• Analogy
• Metaphor
• Example
• Especially when the students background is not
  specific to the new learning

49
Background Information

• Its like this
• Or
• You know how a works its like that
• Or
• A good analogy would be

50
Adult LearnersAre they more ready for Learning?

• Keys
• 1. They may be less dualistic
• 2. They may have a deeper background
• 3. They may be more disciplined
• 4. They may be more mature emotionally
• 5. They may be more focused in their goals

51
Adult Learners

• 6. They do expect to be more involved in their
  learning
• 7. They may need more flexibility in due dates
  and timelines
• 8. They be more attached to their beliefs even
  those that are in error
• 9.Their backgrounds may be a mile long but an
  inch deep

52
Part FiveThe WHYs of Teaching

• Students will decide for the themselves what is
  important for them to learn (James Zull, The Art
  of Changing the Brain)
• This decision is deeply affected by the
  teachers ability to explain WHY what is being
  taught is important.

53
The WHYs of Teaching

• 1. How does this current learning fit into future
  learning?
• 2. How does this current leaning fit into my
  career goals?
• 3. Where ( in what other classes ) will I use
  these skills or information?
• What makes this learning important?

54
The WHYs of Teaching

• 5. Why do I need to learn this in this particular
  way?
• 6. Why do we have to learn in groups?
• 7. Why do I have to speak in public?
• 8. Why dont you lecture?
• 9. Why do you make us do all the work?
• 10. Why do you give cumulative exams?

55
The WHYs of Teaching

• 11. Why do I have to teach other students?
• 12.Why do we have to write summaries?

56
Part SixWhat will help Students to Remember
www.learnplus.com/guides/images/brainmem.gif
57
Using Teaching to Improve Long Term Memory

• The job of a college instructor must be more
  than just exercising the short term memory of
  his/her students.

58
Teaching for Long Term Memory Formation

• College teaching and
• students learning must
• be about long-term
• memory formation

www.nald.ca/fulltext/ adlitUS/graphics/fig1.GIF
59
How information or a skill is learned has a
great affect on if it gets retained

• Students need adequate time to learn new
• information or skills - this includes time for
• reflection on how to best organize it and to
• complete an analysis of what is important to
• remember (Marilee Sprenger, Learning and Memory,
  1999)

60
Learning takes Time

• When students do not have enough time to
• learn new materialthey are very likely to
• try and just memorize it ( Rote Memory)
• Faculty wants students to become thinkers, but
  thinking takes time and practice.

61
Connections to Prior Knowledge

• How the information gets connected to prior
• knowledge - the linkages can create many
• ways for the information to be recalled
• or
• Can severely limit the cues that will work for
• recall.

62
We Remember what is Important and Relevant

• The relevance and
• importance of the
• information affects what
• gets retained. (James Zull, pg.
• 82)
• Humans remember things
• more readily when
• they have the emotional
• connection.

arts.uwaterloo.ca/arts/images/speech_com2.jpg
63
Elaboration of Information

• When the information or
• skills are elaborated -
• that is, when the student
• looks to find as many
• areas of connection to
• prior knowledge as
• possible, retention is
• enhanced.

www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/ exhibitions/brain/im...
64
Translate in to Own Words

• When students put the
• information into their
• own words it enlarges
• the potential of detecting
• connections to already
• held patterns - summary
• writing is a good example
• of this.

www.nsrc.org/helpdesk/ AFNOG/summary/img011.GIF
65
Key Assessment Activities or Assignments would
Include

• Ask students questions
• that require them to put
• the information into their
• own words
• If they cannot
• translate it into their own
• language they do not
• understand it and will not
• be able to apply it or have
• useful recall of it

www.chass.ncsu.edu/ ccstm/scmh/essay.GIF
66
Teaching Students to Remember

• The one who does the talking, does the
  learning. -Thomas Angelo
• Students should teach each other
• Students should present their work in public
  (classroom)
• Students should share their understanding orally
  in public (classroom discussion)

67
Teaching Students to Remember

• Students should do as
• much firsthand and
• multi-sensory learning as
• possible. (Conway, MA ,Changes in Memory
  Awareness in Learning)
• Labs
• Internships
• Field trips
• Service learning
• Community service

www.sensesmart.com/.../ multisensory.gif
68

• Examples
• Presenting case study findings
• Explaining the process (es) used in problem
  solving especially ill-structured problems
• Students prepare the test questions
• Presenting to authentic audiences

69
Recognize the Primacy and Recency Effect

• The information that is presented in the first 20
• minutes will receive the students greatest
• attention and offer the best chance to be
• recalled.
• The information presented in the last
• 10 minutes has the next best chance of being
• recalled (David Sousa, pg. 91)

70

• Recognize the affect teaching methods
• have on potential for retention.
• Retention after 24 hours
• Lecture 5
• Reading 10
• Audiovisual 20
• Demonstration 30
• Discussion Group 50
• Practice by Doing 75
• Teach Others 90

(NTL Institute)
71
Practice, Practice , Practice

• Perfect practice makes
• perfect- the more
• students are asked to
• demonstrate what they
• have learned, the more
• permanent their long
• term memories become.

/url?qhttp// www.mind-control-method.com/rep.gif

72
Part SevenWhat will Aid Students Learning

• 1. A sense of community

Learning is a Social/Emotional Experience
73
Learning is a Social/Emotional Experience

• Instructors teach the whole person not just the
  cognitive mind.

www.ambercoaching.com/ images/pic02.jpg
74
Learning is a Social/Emotional Experience

• Most learning outside of formal schooling happens
  in a community contextwith friends, family,
  church, teams, clubs, organizations etc. (John
  Brandsford, 2000, How People Learn).

www.scoutinghaarlem.nl/ photobook/rsw2004deeln...
www.scoutinghaarlem.nl/ photobook/rsw2004deeln
75
Learning Environment

• Issues of Fear
• 1. Amygdala
• 2. Fear/Anxiety

ahsmail.uwaterloo.ca/kin356/ ltm/hippocampus
76
Recognize the Impact Fear has in Learning and
Address It

• When students amygdales are active it means the
  cognitive parts of the brain needed for learning
  will be less active (.Robert Sylwester,
  Celebration of Neurons)

77
Recognize the Impact Fear has in Learning and
Address It

• In addition, since a person can only pay
  attention to one thing at a time the amygdala
  will make certain they pay attention to the fear
  or anxiety etc. and not the teacher.

www.rosescafe.net/ cards/afraid.jpg
78
Learning Environment

• Teach to the pleasure
• centers of the brain
• Engage the Front of
• the Brain
• Movement Equals
• Pleasure (James Zull)

www.math.tu-dresden.de/ belov/brain/limbic2.gif
79
How to Reach the Students

• Attention
• Attention is a cognitive process that allow a
  student to control irrelevant stimuli, notice
  important stimuli and to shift from one stimulus
  to another (Anderson, 2001)

80
Attention is Necessary for Learning

• Novelty is a big part of getting students to
  attend (Ratey, 2001)

www.reuzegomleuven.be/images/kledij16e1.jpg
81
Attention is Necessary for Learning

• Choice is a key to keeping students attention
  (Glasser Choice Theory)
• Humans seek to be in control, they need freedom
  and power. (James Zull)
• Giving students choices and input to control
  their learning makes them feel empowered and it
  builds trust and increases engagement.

82
Emotion and Memory

• Emotional arousal organizes and coordinates brain
  activity (Bloom, Beal Kupfer 2003)
• When the amygdala detects emotions, it
  essentially boosts activity in the areas of the
  brain that form memories (S. Hamann Emony, UN.)

83
Emotional Hooks

• Emotions are contagious so teachers need to be
  excited about what they teach
• (Lewis, Amini Lannon 2000)
• Examples
• Dress the Part Costumes of characters get
  students attentions

www.missem.com/historical/ images/day-group.jpg
84
Emotional Hooks

• Music has emotional anchors. Use it to aid
  memory formation
• Stories are powerful the brain loves stories
  use them to illustrate learning
• Make students take a side or a position on issues
  these arouse emotions

85
Advanced Organizers

• Advanced organizers are powerful instruments for
  focusing students attention
• Examples
• Agree-Disagree Chart
• Helps emotions and helps illustrate concepts

86
Advanced Organizers

• Similarities and Differences

87
Advanced Organizers

• Mind Maps show relationships in various ways and
  levels

www.hedley.org.uk/.../ mindmapsindex.jpeg
88
Learning Styles

• Students need to know their preferred learning
  style as a way to enhance how they put
  information into long-term memory

www.learning-styles-online.com/ images/memleti...
89
Brainstorming Activity

• Students perform better when they are provided
  with criteria, models and examples that clearly
  illustrate the teachers expectations (Schmoker,
  1999)
• Example
• Brainstorming lets students tell what they
  already know this provides the hooks to hang
  the new information on.

90
Advanced Preparation

• Students need to know that doing the advanced
  preparations teachers ask (homework, reading or
  review of notes) activates the prefrontal cortex
  of the brain
• This is the area that performs higher level
  functions it ensures better performance in
  learning new material.

91
Lectures

• The amount of time students can stay focused is
  their age in minutes (Defina, 2003)
• 18 years old 18 minutes
• Perry (2000) strongly suggests that (lectures)
  presentations must weave between neural systems.
  The neurons in any one system fatigue in 4 8
  minutes, so use the emotional, social and
  cognitive system

92
Wait Time for Answers

• The average wait time for teachers after asking a
  question is 0.9 seconds just extending wait
  time to 3.0 seconds will significantly improve
  response, interaction, students asking their own
  questions and students understanding

93
Keep Students Talking

• Two Easy Questions
• What else? There are other acceptable answers
• Tell me more? More in depth

94
Pause Time and Reflection

• Short pauses 3 10 seconds send the message
  Think about it some more
• Reflection leads to new understanding
• Reflection happens in the frontal lobes this is
  the executive part of the brain

95
Have students reflect on what has been taught

• Students gradually learn how they best learn and
  remember. This is greatly enhanced by reflection.

ccdf.ca/NewCoach/english/ newimages/Module20D...
96
Visualize the Information as Reflection

• Using your visual/spatial intelligence allows for
  multiple coding (more than one sense) of new
  information
• I look at the map in my memory and see the
  answer

www.umr.edu/explore/ physio/maps/memory.gif
97
Journaling helps Reflection

• Writing about an experience provides a feeling of
  control
• Journal about
• I learned
• I want to learn more about
• I liked
• I did not understand

98
Collaborate when Reflecting

• Learning with others for some is a great way to
  imbed information into long-term memory but
  they must want to help each other

www.wildcatnet.lester-ms.pac.dodea.edu/ SIP/im...
99
Recoding

• You dont know anything clearly unless you can
  state it in writing
• (SI Hayakawa)

www.education.ky.gov/.../ foto23.jpg
100
Recoding

• Recoding is about having students put the
  information into their own words using their
  strongest sensory pathways
• Recoding allows information to be organized
  around more familiar patterns our own language

www.bbc.co.uk/.../images/ robert_diary1_325.jpg
101
Organizing Information

• We need to teach students how to organize
  information
• Categorize
• Create images for the words or ideas
• Classify
• Comparing
• Contrasting
• Summarize

102
Organizing Information

• 7. Venn Diagram
• 8. Components
• 9. Location
• 10. Parts to whole
• 11. By function
• Cause and effect
• Many researchers believe that we always store
  information in both language and images

103
Feedback to Students

• Stronges 2002 conclusions about effective
  teaching
• Use pre-assessments to target skills that need
  teaching
• Use good monitoring strategies by directing
  questions to the lessons targets
• Identify likely misconceptions and look for them
  in students work

104
Feedback to Students

• Clear, specific and timely feedback
• Feedback is supportive and encouraging
• Re-teach to those that didnt achieve mastery

www.users.globalnet.co.uk/.../ feedback.gif
105
Part Seven Long Term Learning

• To get information into long-term memory it must
  be rehearsed
• Humans remember sometimes to a very specific cue
  this is called limited memory

listenmissy.com/photos/ rehearsal/meg_crop.jpg
106
Long Term Learning

• To recall information without a cue at all, it
  must be stored in many areas of the brain for
  some this can take a very long time (Siegel,
  1999)

www.drugabuse.gov/.../ largegifs/slide-2.gif
107
Rote Rehearsal

• Rote rehearsal is effective when information will
  be used in the same format or design as the
  rehearsal

moonjumpers.com/christopher/ thirty_four_month...
108
Elaborative Rehearsal

• Elaborative rehearsal relies on creating meaning
  meaningful information is more memorable
  connects to what is already stored.

www.lyonhealy.com/hall/ Hall20pics/Hi20res2...
109
Long Term Learning

• New skills need at least 24 practices to reach
  80 proficiency (Marsano, Pickering Pollack,
  2003)
• With each exposure to information, the time it
  takes to recognize the information lessens

110
Long Term Learning

• Until memories are consolidated in the brain,
  they are retrieved via the pathway where they
  were stored only when consolidated can
  information be recalled without cues or triggers
• Understanding DOES NOT memory formation

111
Long Term Learning

• Studies show that students that engage in regular
  practice of their knowledge and skills, improve
  their performance on tests, 21 44, more than
  those who do not practice. (Ross, 1988, Bloom,
  1976, Komar, 1991)

www.caps.ku.edu/ graphics/testanxiety.jpg
112
Rehearsal

• Rehearsing the information and skills is most
  effective when done in intervals with quality
  sleep in between (Schirmer, Patel Hobson,
  2000)
• Most memory researchers agree memories are
  encoded during sleep Millroad Mitru, 2002)
• However the sleep needs to be 7.5 8 hours for
  full benefit (Stickgold, 2000)

113
Long Term Learning

• Cramming especially staying up late and getting
  less sleep does not lead to memory of the
  information except for a short period of time

www.normanrockwellvt.com/ Plates/Cramming.JPG
114
Value of Homework

• Students that do homework that reinforces
  learning and applies to information learned, earn
  25 gains in test results if the homework is
  graded the increase reaches 30. (Marzano,
  Pickering Pollack, 2001), Brown Cocking, 1999)

www.hasslefreeclipart.com/.../ homework.gif
115
Review

• Often Students dont know what they dont know

www.niehs.nih.gov/ kids/images/homework.gif
116
Review

• 3 Sins of memory commonly occurring among
  students are
• Blocking information stored but cant be
  accessed (Schacter, 2001)
• Misattribution attributing a memory to the
  wrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)
• Transience memory lost over time forgetting
  curve (Schacter, 2001)

117
Review

• The key to effective review is to begin as soon
  as information is received and to review it every
  1-2 days through out the whole course

physics.uoregon.edu/.../ Exams/exam1-dist.jpg
118
Review

• Giving frequent quizzes that cover all of the
  previous material is a way to force review
• NOTE Students need to be taught how to take
  tests And a review of this process should be
  done each year.

119
Review and Memory

• Each time a student accesses a memory, he/she is
  more likely to be able to access it again--LTP
• Asking students to recall their conceptual
  understanding of an idea and apply it in a
  different context will reinforce their critical
  thinking skills

120
Retrieve

• The brain draws on the connections it can make
  from current situations (the cues available)
• Brains logically access memories that are useful,
  have been repeated and require the least effort!
  (Pinker, 1999)

121
Retrieving Memories

• Wanting to remember something for later recall,
  aids its lasting ability (Squire Kandel, 1999)

www.nadir.org/.../agp/ gender/desire/desire.jpg
122
Retrieving Memories

• The availability of the memory may depend on the
  strength of the cue(s) provided
• We tend to store memories bye similarity, but
  retrieve by difference. (Sousa, 2001)

123
Retrieving Memories

• It is fairly easy to give students False
  memories
• Neurons organized in the brain around concepts
  will react when language or images similar to
  those concept are stimulated

124
Retrieving Memories

• Multiple choice and true/false tests can easily
  lead to false memories
• Test questions, answers and distractors can
  activate memory systems that confuse and cause
  mistakes

www.epa.gov/.../ images_sge/confused.jpg
125
Retrievals Effect on Memory

• Memories are constructed each time you recall a
  memory it changes
• The context of the recall
• The reason for the recall, (to add new learning
  to a memory)
• The time between recalls
• all can AND do (slightly) change the memory

126
Conclusion

• It is perhaps self-evident that the more
  effective teachers use more effective
  instructional strategies. It is probably also
  true that effective teachers have more
  instructional strategies at their disposal
• Robert Marzano, What Works in Schools

127
Conclusion

• A teachers knowledge level and skill level can
  drastically affect student achievement
  (Darling-Hammond, 1997)
• Teacher expectations either enhance or worsen
  student achievement( Danielson, 2002)

128
Conclusion

• 75 of a students performance is based on what
  occurs prior to review and assessment.
  Motivation, attention, recoding, reinforcement
  and rehearsal make up ¾ of a students grade.(
  Schenck 2000)

129

• The End
• A Special thanks to Jennifer Cox for her help in
  putting this PowerPoint show together

130
References

• References
• 1. ATHERTON J S (2004) Teaching and Learning 
  Deep and Surface learning   On-line UK
  Available http//www.learningandteaching.info/lea
  rning/deepsurf.htm
• 2. Brooks, J. and Martin. In search of
  Understanding The Case for the Constructionist
  Classroom, 1999
• 3. Bjork, R. A. (1994) Memory and Metamemory
  consideration in the training of human beings. In
  J. Metcalfe A. Shimamura (Eds) Metacognition
  Knowing about Knowing pp. 185-205. Cambridge, MA
  MIT Press.
• 4. Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of
  Educational Objectives The
• classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I.
  Cognitive Domain (pp. 201-
• 207). New York McKay.
• 5. Elizabeth Campbell Teaching Strategies to
  Foster "Deep" Versus "Surface Learning, Centre
  for University Teaching( based on the work of
  Christopher Knapper, Professor of Psychology and
  Director of the Instructional Development Centre
  at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario

131
References

• 6. Covington, M. V. (2000) Goal , theory
  motivation and school achievement An Integrated
  review in Annual Review of Psychology ( pp
  171-200)
• 7. Caine, Renate Caine, Geoffrey. Education on
  The Edge of Possibility. Alexandria, VA
  Association for Supervision and Curriculum
  Development, 1997.
• 8. Dweck, Carol (2000) Self Theories Their
  roles in motivation, personality and development.
  Philadelphia, PA Psychology Press
• 9. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error
  Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York,
  NY, Grosset/Putnam
• 10. Diamond, Marion. (1988). Enriching Heredity
  The Impact of the Environment on the Brain. New
  York, NY Free Press.
• 11. Damasio AR Fundamental Feelings. Nature
  413781, 2001.
• 12. Damasio AR The Feeling of What Happens Body
  and Emotion in the Making of
• 13.Consciousness, Harcourt Brace, New York, 1999,
  2000.

132
References

• 14 .D. O. Hebb,1949 monograph, The Organization
  of Behaviour
• 15. Sylwester, R. A Celebration of Neurons An
  Educators Guide to the Human Brain, ASCD1995
• 16. Sprenger, M. Learning and Memory The Brain
  in Action by, ASCD, 1999
• 17.How People Learn by National Research Council
  editor John Bransford, National Research Council,
  2000
• 18. Goldberg, E. The Executive Brain Frontal
  Lobes and the Civilized Mind ,Oxford University
  Press 2001
• 19. Hagen, A. S. Weinstein, C. E. (1995)
  Achievement goals, self-regulated learning and
  the role of classroom context. In P.R. Pintrich (
  ed.) understanding self-regulated learning( pp.
  43-55) San Francisco, CA Jossey Bass
• 20. Kolb, D. A. (1981) 'Learning styles and
  disciplinary differences'. in A. W. Chickering
  (ed.) The Modern American College, San Francisco
  Jossey-Bass.
• 21. Magnusson, J. L., Perry, R. P. (1989).
  Stable and transient determinants of students'
  perceived control Implications for instruction
  in the college classroom. Journal of Educational
  Psychology, 81, 362-370.

133
References

• 22. Ratey, J. MD A Users Guide to the Brain,
  Pantheon Books New York, 2001
• 23. Zull, James. The Art of Changing the
  Brain.2002, Stylus Virginia
• 24. Weimer, Maryellen. Learner-Centered
  Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 2002
• 25. Penny, W.G. Jr. (1981). Cognitive and
  ethical growth the making of meaning. In A.
  Chickering (Ed.), The modern American college.
  San Francisco Jossey-Bass, Inc.
• 26.  Milton, O. , Pollio, H. R., Eison, J. (
  1986) Making sense of college grades, San
  Francisco, CA Jossey Bass
• 27. Perry, R. P., Magnusson, J. L. (1987).
  Effective instruction and students' perceptions
  of control in the college classroom Multiple
  lectures effects. Journal of Educational
  Psychology, 79, 453-460.
• 28. Steinberg, L. (with Brown, B. B,
  Dornbusch, S.M.)(1996) Beyond the classroom Why
  school reform has failed and what parents need to
  do. New York, NY Simon Schuster.
• 29. Stevenson, H.W., Stigler, J. W. (1992) The
  learning gap Why our schools are failing and
  what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese
  education. New York, NY Simon and Schuster.
• 30. Tagg, John. The Learning Paradigm College.
  Anker Publishing , Bolton MA 2003
• 31. http//www.istpp.org/enews/2002_05_30.html
  Alarik Arenander and Fred Travis