Part II: Mainland Southeast Asia

1
Part II Mainland Southeast Asia
2

• Introduction to the Musics of Mainland Southeast
  Asia

3
Nation-states do not necessarily define human
cultural groups

• nation-states are complicated by linguistic and
  ethnic pluralism
• no one type of music is Thai, or Burmese, or Lao
• terms like Thai, Burmese, and Lao denote majority
  cultures

4
Each Southeast Asian nation looks clearly
defined, but is complex

• each has cultural regions, minority ethnic
  groups, and historical strata
• provinces and even neighboring villages can
  differ markedly

5
Knowledge of the mainland by researchers is not
uniform

• Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia have been open
  to researchers
• Burma, in contrast, was closed to outsiders until
  the 1990s
• parts of Cambodia and Laos are still either off
  limits or difficult to visit

6
Questions for Discussion

• How does this description of the mainland differ
  from the general region?
• What is the relationship between a nation-state
  and an ethnic group?
• Does being part of an ethnic group mean being
  unified as a people?

7

• The Khmer People of Cambodia

8
Khmer denotes the majority ethnic group in the
Kingdom of Cambodia

• The nation was called Kampuchea, but the term is
  now avoided
• Cambodias boundaries were created during
  colonialism
• many lowland Khmer live in Thailand and Vietnam
• many upland Khmer live in Laos and Vietnam

9
The nation

• most of Cambodia is flat, except for mountains on
  the borders
• extensive forests and plains with wet-rice
  cultivation
• Two major rivers the Mekong and the Tonle Sap
• estimated population of almost 14 million people
• 90 of the population is ethnically Khmer

10
The culture

• Many aspects of culture were transmitted from
  India
• temples of Angkor include bas-reliefs of cultural
  elements, including music
• Buddhism became the dominant religion in Cambodia
  by the 13th century

11
War and colonialism

• The Siamese Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai and
  Ayuthaya warred frequently with the Khmer
• the Tai carried off 90,000 prisoners, including
  musicians and dancers
• Khmer people were bereft of their cultural
  treasures

12
War and colonialism (cont.)

• Cambodia asked for Frances protection against
  Siamese and Vietnamese aggression, and became a
  French protectorate in 1864
• Cambodia became part of the Indochinese Union

13
Independence and chaos

• King Norodom Sihanouk proclaimed independence in
  1949
• Sihanouk was overthrown by Lon Nol in 1970, who
  established the Khmer Republic

14
Independence and chaos (cont.)

• 1975-1979 Cambodia led into destruction by Pol
  Pot and the Khmer Rouge, including the killing of
  many traditional performing artists
• 1992 Paris Peace Accord restored Sihanouk to
  power as king his son now reigns

15
Music in Cambodia

• Khmer civilization reached its peak from the 9th
  to the 15th centuries
• the temple at Angkor reveals musical instruments
  and their contexts

16
Music in Cambodia (cont.)

• 15th century conflicts with the Siamese led to a
  decline in Khmer musical culture Khmer music
  revived by the 18th century
• In the 20th century, conservation, preservation
  and revival

17
Khmer musical instruments

• three divisions
• percussion
• stringed
• wind instruments
• two functions
• religious
• secular

18
Khmer musical instruments (cont.)

• other classifications include
• physical materials
• role (leader, follower)
• musical style
• ensemble context
• controlling action
• size
• status (court, folk)
• system of beliefs

19
Khmer musical instruments (cont.)

• Materials
• Clay
• hide
• Bamboo
• Gourd

• Silk
• horn
• Wood
• metals

20
Idiophones

• concussion idiophones (chhap, krapp)
• struck idiophones
• xylophones (roneat ek, roneat thung/thomm, roneat
  dak)
• gongs (korng, korng vung tauch, korng vung thomm,
  korng mong, khmuoh)
• plucked idiophones (angkuoch)

21
Membranophones

• drums (skor arakk, skor thomm, skor chhaiyaim,
  skor yike, skor klang khek, sampho, rumanea)
• mirliton (slekk)

22
Chordophones

• harp (pinn)
• zithers (khse muoy, krapeu, khimm)
• lutes (tror, tror Khmer, tror chhe, tror so
  tauch, tror so thomm, tror ou, tror ou chamhieng,
  chapey dang veng)

23
Aerophones

• flutes (khloy)
• reeds (sneng, ploy, pey pork, ken, pey prabauh,
  sralai, sralai tauch, sralai thomm, sralai klang
  khek)
• trumpets (saing)

24
System of tuning

• the perfect fifth and octave are constant the
  rest are tuned by ear
• scales anhemitonic pentatonic and heptatonic
• key two main tonal centers (G and C) for two
  main performing ensembles

25
System of tuning (cont.)

• mode basis for composition, improvisation,
  embellishment, extra-musical features (context,
  time, mood, etc.)
• basis of mode has to do with pitch hierarchy in
  relation to final tone
• texture melodically based, heterophonic

26
Rhythmic features

• meter duple
• final stroke of each metrical cycle is the
  strongest
• strong and weak beats articulated by cymbals
• drumming patterns are cyclic
• drums set the tempo and keep time, but are
  considered secondary

27
Structural features

• pitches at the end of each cycle constitute the
  skeletal form of the melody
• musicians follow a collective melody, serving as
  a general guideline

28
Structural features (cont.)

• cycles three lengths occurring in multiples of
  two (for example, four measures, eight measures,
  and sixteen measures)
• drums execute a specific pattern associated with
  the prescribed metrical level

29
Court music, dance, and theater

• Ensembles
• vung phleng pinn peat (main court ensemble)
• pinn peat (drum music/dance music)
• vung phleng mohori (secular entertainment)
• arakk and kar (religious contexts)
• Repertoire
• musicians are expected to vary their playing

30
Court music, dance, and theater (cont.)

• Dance
• dancers try to make their bodies, arms, hands,
  and feet curvilinear
• types of dance pure dance, thematic dance,
  dance-drama
• Reamker (Ramayana) principal theme for court
  dance
• gestures are formalized
• pinn peat supports the dancers through melodic,
  temporal and percussive signals

31
Court music, dance, and theater (cont.)

• masked play
• shadow puppet play
• dance, mime, song, music, narration

32
Folk music

• ceremonial music (life cycles, seasonal
  celebrations, temple fairs)
• spirit worship music (arakk)
• wedding ceremonies (kar)
• funerals
• other festivals

33
Theater (lkhaon)

• yike (dancing, acting, miming, narrations, songs,
  music)
• basakk (Chinese derived)
• functional repertoires
• boxing (pradall)
• repartee (ayai)
• narrative (chrieng chapey)

34
Theater (lkhaon) (cont.)

• folk dance
• performed in conjunction with seasonal festivals
• natural world as inspiration
• other festivals

35
Solo instrumental music

• slekk (leaf)
• angkuoch (Jews harp)
• sneng (free-reed horn)
• saing (conch shell)
• pey pork (free-reed pipe)
• say diev (chest-resonated monochord)

36
Khmer religious music

• Theravada Buddhism
• chanting (saut thoar) in Pali
• poetic recitation (smaut)

37
Foreign and modern music

• French colonial roots
• Filipino influences
• disappearance of pop music 1975-1979
• contexts nightclubs, parties, weddings, sports,
  social dances, restaurants
• low social status of musicians

38
Foreign and modern music (cont.)

• themes love, revolution, heroism, sadness
• pop bands use only Western instruments
• classification of songs by rhythms and styles of
  dancing
• fixed format ABCB

39
Contemporary uses of traditional arts

• shift from recreation and entertainment to
  politics or tourist performances
• diminishment of cultural practices
• few opportunities for traditional musicians
• Khmer refugee communities abroad are known for
  their performing arts
• other festivals

40
Questions for Discussion

• What kind of impact can an internal or external
  political power wield on the performing arts?
• What is the point of having a different ensemble
  for entertainment and religious purposes?
• Can you think of other heterophonic types of
  music?
• Why would pop bands use only Western instruments?

41

• Thailand

42
History

• four cultural regions center, south, north,
  northeast
• Westernization began in the 19th century, but
  Thailand was not colonized
• Golden Age of Thailand between 13th and 17th
  centuries

43
History (cont.)

• Thailand includes 76 provinces and about 65
  million people
• Tai people are a diverse set of related groups
  both inside and outside Thailand

44
Village and court associations

• courts associated with ruling elite and their
  ceremonies and entertainments
• villages associated with cycles of festivals
  related to agriculture and Buddhism
• classical music, dance and theater are tied to
  Thai identity
• transmission is primarily through public school
  system
• Bangkok remains highly influential culturally

45
General observations

• importance of etiquette
• no use of notation or questioning by the students
• training was lengthy and done by rote
• Thai music is ensemble oriented

46
Idiophones

• concussion idiophones (ching, chap, krap)
• struck idiophones
• xylophones (ranat ek, ranat thum)
• gongs (khawng wong yai, khawng wong lek, khawng
  mawn)

47
Membranophones

• single-headed drums (thon, rammana)
• double-headed drums (klawng that, taphon, klawng
  khaek, boeng mang kawk)

48
Aerophones

• flutes (khlui)
• reeds (pi, pi chawa, pi mawn)

49
Chordophones

• lutes (krajappi, saw sam sai, saw duang, saw u)
• zithers (ja-khe, khim)

50
Ensembles

• khrüang sai types (string ensemble)
• mohori types (entertainment and dance-drama
  accompaniment)
• piphat types (most important ensemble in Thailand)

51
Contexts for classical music

• historical (court activities, coronations, etc.)
• contemporary (colleges, private homes, temple
  fairs, funerals)

52
Theater (khon)

• masked drama (khon) Ramakian, based on the
  Ramayana
• performed in episodes only
• shadow puppet theater (nang yai)
• related to classical khon
• narrated offstage
• accompanied by piphat ensemble

53
Theater (khon) (cont.)

• dance-drama (lakhawn)
• emphasis on singing and graceful dancing
• vocal parts done offstage
• very spare set and use of symbolism
• rod puppet theater (hün)
• only one troupe remains
• rare and seldom seen

54
Other narrative and ritual traditions

• ritual to honor teachers (wai khru)
• ceremony to bind ones spiritual essence (tham
  khwan)
• Buddhas life story telling (thet mahachat)
• narrative storytelling (sepha)

55
Pitch

• controversy over Thai tunings
• temperament set by ear, with tolerance over pitch
  deviation
• scale seven tones in an octave five tones are
  the basis of most compositions
• mode melodic idiom, style, drum patterns, etc.

56
Rhythm

• rhythmic density articulated by brass cymbals
• three levels of rhythmic density the first is
  the most dense, and the third is the least dense
  proportionately
• drum strokes and patterns have names

57
Rhythm (cont.)

• two main drumming patterns and special patterns
  for individual pieces
• drummers play variations on the basic patterns

58
Tempo

• piphat ensemble can play as fast as the leader is
  able
• lakhawn played more slowly
• solo ranat ek can be played very rapidly
• solo khlui or saw will be played slower to
  highlight ornamentation

59
Melody

• melody is manifested in many individual
  realizations according to the idiom of the
  instrument or voice
• two main characters of melody motivic and lyrical

60
Melody (cont.)

• Thai melodies tend to be conjunct rather than
  disjunct
• regular and symmetrical phrases

61
Texture

• relationship to other gong-chime musical cultures
  not a given
• polyphonic stratification/heterophony

62
Form

• underlying structure defined by the strokes of
  the ching
• final stroke of each metrical cycle is the
  strongest
• strong and weak beats articulated by cymbals

63
Form (cont.)

• composers develop new works from old formulaic
  conventions
• compositions constructed of two or more sections
  (thawn)
• same rhythmic density maintained throughout a
  section or piece

64
Extramusical relationships

• many titles allude to animals
• meaning of titles may be expressed in vocal texts
• many pieces have programmatic titles

65
Improvisation

• flexibility in performance is permissible
• impromptu composition does not occur
• students are taught to play specific versions

66
Composers

• early compositions are anonymous
• compositions from after the 19th century are
  attributed to known composers
• fleshing out the composition occurs in
  performance
• names of the composers are confusing

67
Repertoire

• naphat instrumental compositions associated with
  theater and ritual ceremony
• phleng rüang suite of pieces not linked to a
  story
• homrong overtures or suites
• phleng tap shorter suites
• phleng tao composition played continuously in
  three rhythmic densities

68
Repertoire (cont.)

• phleng yai great pieces, including extended
  ensemble compositions
• phleng dio works for solo instruments
• phleng la pieces to end a concert
• phleng kret miscellaneous pieces

69
Repertoire (cont.)

• national accent pieces tunes considered to be
  in the style of another culture
• phleng hang khrüang short, playful pieces
• vocal sections include words strung out in long
  melismas, complex intonation,and nasal timbre

70
Notation

• two types tablature and pitch notation
• notation is used to convey a generic version of a
  melody
• the accented note comes just before the bar

71
Thai music history

• reconstructing Thai music history is difficult
• few documents have survived
• scholarly study of Thai music is only recent
• problems in dating the surviving documents

72
Thai music history (cont.)

• written sources
• earliest known document from 14th century
• earliest European account from 16th century
• many book chapters from 1810-1920 (often biased
  and ethnocentric)
• exception to ethnocentrism was Anna Leonowens
  work
• after 1900, many detailed scholarly treatments of
  Thai music

73
Thai music history (cont.)

• iconographic sources
• many temple depictions of instruments and musical
  scenes
• restorations may have obscured original intent
• the modern period
• suppression of classical music
• importance of education in reviving classical
  music

74
Buddhism in Thai music

• temple as focus of festivities and Buddhist life
• Buddhist festivals parallel the agricultural
  cycle
• Buddhism and Hinduism entered Thailand 500 years
  after Buddhas death in532 BCE

75
Buddhism in Thai music (cont.)

• Buddhism is both a philosophy and a syncretistic
  popular religion
• occasions for chanting and instrumental music
• songkran traditional new year (April 13)
• awk phansa end of agricultural work (October)
• kathin gift-giving to monks (October-November)
• loi kratong festival of lights (full moon of
  November)
• temple fairs (November to March)
• ordinations, marriages, funerals, kings
  birthday, etc.

76
Buddhism in Thai music (cont.)

• chanting is the responsibility of both monks and
  novices
• chanting occurs both inside and outside the
  temple compound
• varieties of chant

77
Buddhism in Thai music (cont.)

• preaching (thet) includes two basic styles
• transmission requires memorization of texts
• chant on a single pitch with inflections on
  different pitches
• story-sermons in regional vernacular and in more
  melodic fashion

78
Sukhwan ritual

• Hindu-derived, intended to restore the health of
  a person
• ritual performed in temple meeting hall, home, or
  elsewhere
• loss of khwan can cause afflictions and
  misfortunes
• calls back the khwan (psyche, morale, spiritual
  essence)

79
Regional Thai culture

• Thai regions were once isolated from central
  Thailand
• modernization brought Bangkok/popular culture to
  the far regions of Thailand
• people spoke regional languages and maintained
  distinctiveness until the 1970s

80
Central Thai culture focused on village life

• village songs occur in conjunction with
  agricultural and festival cycles
• li-ke theatrical performances occur on temporary
  stages
• long-drum ensembles found in processions

81
Southern Thailand was once the center of Malay
civilization

• substantial Muslim population
• instruments similar to those found elsewhere in
  Thailand
• genres include nora (dance-drama), and nang
  talung (shadow-puppet)

82
Northern Thailand

• instruments unique to the region
• heterophonic texture of ensemble music
• extensive ornamentation of melody

83
Northern Thailand (cont.)

• music performed in courting, weddings,
  housewarmings, processions, festivals, and
  funerals
• genres include narrative, repartee, theater,
  courtship, spirit dances, and festival dances

84
Northeastern Thailand

• borders Cambodia and Laos, with three separate
  cultural subgroups
• instruments distinct from the rest of Thailand
• lam vocal music incorporating flexible melody
  and tones of the poetry
• courtship poetry is the basis for some vocal
  genres

85
Northeastern Thailand

• khaen free-reed bamboo organ
• most important instrument of the region
• personal and eclectic style
• improvised music based on lai, a simple modal
  system
• basic repertoire consists of improvisations in
  all five standard modes
• several basic programmatic pieces are known to
  all players
• five named lai

86
Northeastern Thailand

• genres of lam (vocal music centered on texts in
  Lao)
• storytelling and courtship
• performances occur in conjunction with
  calendrical rites
• lam mu theater
• popular songs

87
Popular music in Thailand

• brass bands
• pop songs based on Thai classical melodies
• songs for life
• American influence
• ballroom dance

88
Questions for Discussion

• Does the music change depending on whether the
  nation has been colonized?
• What are the musical results of religious,
  regional, and political influences?
• What is the musical difference between the
  different regions of Thailand?
• What sources can you trust when you try to
  understand a nations musical history?

89

• Laos

90
The nation

• landlocked country, bordering on Vietnam,
  Thailand, Burma and China
• mostly forested and mountainous (4 arable land)
• poverty has prevented modernization
• multicultural population of over 6 million,
  primarily living in the lowlands

91
Nonclassical music

• musical instruments parallel those in Thailand
• kong (two-headed lace drums) and cymbals (sing
  and sap) are important
• khene a free-reed mouth organ is the
  predominant instrument in rural Laos

92
Nonclassical music (cont.)

• tuning is based on the khene (7 tones per
  octave), similar to diatonic scale
• the khene accompanies singing, most of which is
  in the form of repartee
• two basic pentatonic scales san (sounds major)
  and yao (sounds minor)

93
Rituals

• healing
• rocket festival
• buffalo sacrifice

94
Entertainment

• 12 regional genres named for places or ethnic
  groups
• singers perform in small, intimate settings
• 7 Southern genres are preceded with the word lam
• performances occur with calendrical, Buddhist,
  and national festivals
• 5 Northern genres are preceded with the word khap

95
Southern regional genres

• lam sithandone
• lam som
• lam salavane
• lam ban xok
• lam phu thai
• lam khon savan
• lam mahaxay
• lam tang vay

96
Northern regional genres

• khap ngeum
• khap phuan
• khap sam neua
• khap thum
• khap thai dam

97
Nonclassical vocal genres some observations

• khap genres differ stylistically from the lam
• Southern Lao singers perform multiple genres, but
  northern singers perform one
• lam genres are typically accompanied by a small
  ensemble instead of the khene
• all southern Lao genres have metrical
  accompaniment
• three khap genres are similar to each other

98
Theater

• nonclassical theater has existed in Laos only
  since the 1940s
• origin from Thai li-ke theater
• lam poen developed from recited narrative to lam
  leuang, an acted narrative
• lam mu (collective singing) scripted, acted-out
  stories

99
Classical music

• the term peng lao deum (Lao traditional
  compositions) differentiates classical
  compositions from nonclassical genres like lam
• historical power and influence of Thailand

100
Classical music (cont.)

• most of the court tradition disappeared (1828)
  and was reinstated (1950s) , the disappeared
  again (after 1975)
• purposes of classical music entertainment,
  atmosphere, accompaniment to ritual, theater, and
  dance

101
Classical musical instruments all have Thai
equivalents

• plucked instruments (tit)
• lutes (kachappi)
• bowed instruments (si)
• two-stringed fiddles (so i and so u)

102
Classical musical instruments all have Thai
equivalents (cont.)

• beaten instruments (ti)
• xylophones (lanat ek mai and lanat thum mai)
• gong circles (khong vong noi, khong vong nyai)
• cymbals (sing and sap)
• two-headed barrel drums (kong taphone, kong that)
• hammered dulcimers (khim)

103
Classical musical instruments all have Thai
equivalents (cont.)

• blown instruments (bao)
• reeds (pi kaeo)
• flutes (khui)

104
Ensembles (named differently in Vientiane and
Luang Phrabang)

• ensemble associated with ritual, formal
  occasions, theater and dance is called piphat in
  Vientiane and sep nyai in Luang Phrabang
• includes xylophones, gong circles, and oboe or
  flute
• other ensemble is called maholi in Vientiane and
  sep noi in Luang Phrabang
• flexible instrumentation but usually strings and
  flutes

105
Regional styles of classical music

• three separate but similar court traditions
  developed
• Champassak in the south
• vanished when the Thai gained power
• one classical ensemble still exists in a village
• part of its territory was ceded to Cambodia

106
Regional styles of classical music (cont.)

• Luang Phrabang in the north
• had been the royal capital and kings residence
• after 1975 court music ceased to function loss
  of royal status
• classical dance, masked drama and hand-puppet
  theater

107
Regional styles of classical music (cont.)

• Vientiane (administrative capital) in the center
• purpose of performing arts to promote Lao
  national identity
• tradition began largely as a copy of Bangkoks
  traditions
• performances at festivals and for visiting
  dignitaries

108
Regional styles of classical music (cont.)

• shift to communist rule
• current performances include piphat, maholi, and
  khene vo
• elite arts, costumes and Thai influences
  eliminated

109
Popular music

• Vientiane had a lively nightclub scene before
  1975
• Lao popular culture is primarily borrowed from
  Thailand
• prevalent pop music is modernized renditions of
  traditional regional genres

110
Popular music (cont.)

• poverty and Thai media stand in the way of pop
  musics development in Laos
• diaspora includes some of the top musicians
• musicians are mostly free to perform, but who can
  afford to pay them?

111
Questions for Discussion

• What is actually Lao about Laotian music?
• What is the difference between nonclassical and
  classical musics in Laos?
• What can you say about a nation in which most of
  its musicians live abroad?
• How did the shift to communist rule have an
  impact on music?

112

• Burma

113
The Nation

• officially called Myanmar, Burma borders on
  Bangladesh, India, China, Thailand, and Laos it
  is slightly smaller than Texas
• population of over 47 million people, including
  the primary ethnic group of Burmese at 68,
  followed by much smaller percentages of Shan,
  Karen, Rakhine, Chinese, Mon, Indian, and others

114
The Nation (cont.)

• research limited in non-Burmese states, and few
  know much about Burma at all
• Burmese arts include imported genres from what is
  now Thailand
• nationally the predominant religion is Theravada
  Buddhism

115
Outdoor ensembles

• hsaìñwaìñ most important and most frequently
  heard outdoor ensemble
• drum circle (pawaìñ) variations on the melody
• gong circle (cìwaìñ) variations on the melody
• gong rack (maùñsaìñ)
• barrel drums (pamá and sakhúñ) the less they
  play, the more important
• oboe (hnè) carries the melody
• flute (palwei)
• cymbals (sì and yakwìñ))
• wood block (byau)
• bamboo clappers (walehkou)
• large gong (maùñ)

116
Outdoor ensembles (cont.)

• hsaìñwaìñ is used to accompany theater, ritual,
  religious, and funereal festivals
• spirit-propitiation rite (na pwè)
• theatrical performances (za pwè)
• formerly royal entertainment (anyeìñ)
• virtuosic stand-alone performances (bala hsaìñ)

117
Outdoor ensembles (cont.)

• other outdoor drums and percussion
• òzi played with cymbals, clappers, flute or oboe
• doupá (small) with large cymbals, oboe, and
  clappers
• bouñcì (larger) in pairs with oboe, clappers and
  cymbals
• byò (stick-beaten) with a large oboe and cymbals
• hcìñloùñ sporting event accompanied by gongs,
  oboe, and drums
• cisi (metal chime) associated with temples
• sito (stick-beaten) associated with royalty

118
Indoor instruments

• saùñ (arched harp) the most prestigious
  instrument, associated with courts
• patala (bamboo xylophone)
• wà (hand-held bamboo clapper)
• sì (two small hand-held cymbals)

119
Rhythm and percussion

• classical pieces begin with a nonmetered section
• meter articulated by the sì and wà in one of
  three cyclic rhythmic patterns
• percussive patterns structure the pieces and
  provide a foil for the variations and
  embellishments of the other instruments

120
Vocal music

• most compositions are settings of poetic texts
• song types fall within four Burmese modes
• hnyìñloùñ
• myìnzaìn
• pale
• au pyañ
• classical repertoire is called thahcìñ cì (great
  song)

121
Vocal music (cont.)

• yoùdayà songs believed to have come to Burma from
  Thailand
• moñ and talaìñ songs thought to come from the Mon
  people
• relationship between tonal language and tones of
  the music
• language is archaic and allusive
• deìñ than songs used to propitiate spirits

122
Music theory

• no standardized notation, and no one is actually
  playing the song or tune
• tuning includes seven notes to the octave,
  similar to major scale
• agreed-upon tuning with room for variation
• modes are based on five tones, and include
  recurring melodic formulas

123
Music theory (cont.)

• cadences are important to identification of a
  specific mode
• drum circle and harp must be retuned for each
  mode
• not all modes are represented in the hsaìñ or
  chamber music repertoire

124
Transmission and change

• two anthologies with five hundred songs
• music learning is embedded in social contexts
• increasing influence of Westernization, the media
  and cultural policies
• traveling theater troupes important for
  transmission of music
• private lessons and state schools
• personal relationships between musicians and
  apprentices

125
Questions for Discussion

• Why do some people call it Burma, while others
  call it Myanmar?
• How does having a majority culture in power
  affect the minority cultures?
• Who gets to decide what is worth transmitting or
  preserving?
• How does Burma maintain musical autonomy in the
  face of Westernization?

126

• Peninsular Malaysia

127
The nation

• peninsular Malaysia is part of the Federation of
  Malaysia
• Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Islam all came
  by the 1200s
• Malays have ruled the peninsula for centuries
• orang asli inhabit inland mountain forests as
  hunter-gatherers

128
The nation (cont.)

• each ethnic group has maintained separate
  performing arts traditions
• population of over 24 million, 50 Malay, 23
  Chinese, and other indigenous
• and non-indigenous groups

129
Rural theater and dance traditions

• shadow-puppet theater
• wayang kulit
• wayang kulit Jawa
• wayang gedek
• wayang Siam and wayang melayu

130
Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)

• dance-drama
• mak yong
• mek mulung
• hadrah
• rodat
• manora
• jikay

131
Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)

• dances
• barongan and kuda kepang
• randai
• tari inai
• dabus

132
Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)

• storytelling traditions
• include stylized language, song/chant,
  instruments
• instruments include bowed stringed instruments
• can include drama or masks

133
Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)

• music for healing
• main saba (curing ceremony)
• main lukah (fishermans curing ritual)
• main puteri (spirit possession)
• music for the martial arts (pencak silat)
• gendang silat ensemble

134
Music for other purposes

• music for work
• agriculture
• fishing
• rice pounding
• music for life-cycle events
• circumcision
• other events
• weddings

135
Music for other purposes (cont.)

• general entertainment
• rebana ubi
• kertok kelapa
• dikir barat
• seruling
• kacapi

136
Traditional urban musical-theatrical genres
(cont.)

• bangsawan romances and situations involving the
  royalty
• boria comic sketch and song-dance routine
• spoken dialogue alternates with song and dance
• instruments include the piano, flute, violin,
  rebana

137
Traditional urban musical-theatrical genres
(cont.)

• musical traditions at court
• shadow-play music
• joget gamelan
• asyek dance
• nobat ceremonial music

138
Music and religion

• zikir sung during important rituals
• importance of the frame drum (rebana)
• chanting the Quran is the highest sonic art form
• musiqa does not apply to Islamic religious sounds
• two streams pre-Islamic and post-Islamic

139
Urban-based folk music

• colotomic instruments (gongs, used to mark off
  points in time)
• rhythmic instruments (two-headed barrel drums and
  single-headed frame drums)
• melodic instruments (violin, flute, gambus,
  harmonium)

140
West Malaysian popular music

• dangdut
• keroncong
• ghazal
• zapin
• joget and ronggeng
• pantun
• asli and dondang sayang

141
European music

• Malay pop
• Malay rock and kugiran
• muzik seriosa
• muzik klasik

142
Questions for Discussion

• Does Malaysia count as a gong-chime culture?
• How does Malaysia maintain musical autonomy in
  the face of Westernization?
• How does having a majority culture in power
  affect the minority cultures?
• Should any one genre of music predominate? who
  decides?

143

• Vietnam

144
The nation

• most Viet are Buddhists, but Vietnam is
  multicultural
• population of over 85 million Viet in lowlands,
  minorities in uplands
• Socialist Republic of Vietnam bordered by China,
  Laos and Cambodia
• three distinct cultural regions north, center,
  south

145
History

• earliest musical instruments included bronze
  drums, bells, lithophones
• indigenous music was part of festivals and
  religious ceremonies
• Buddhism and Indian culture introduced by
  merchants

146
History (cont.)

• Vietnam won independence from China in 938
• music, dance, theater were all royal
  entertainments
• water puppet performances and boat races for
  kings birthday

147
Those in power and the music they listened to

• Buddhist dynasties
• Lê and Nguyên dynasties
• Reform movements in the 20th century
• Influence from the west

148
Pluralized music theory

• vocal music dominates many musical performances
• heterophony
• musical forms in chamber music
• music is presented in a specific order

149
Modes

• four basic skills
• modes based on a combined set of concepts
  (hoi-diêu)
• organizing tonal materials in hierarchical
  patterns
• preparing modal sentiments for a given song or
  piece
• using specific melodic patterns
• displaying ornamentation

150
Scales

• scales vary according to the genre, subgenre, or
  social context
• bottom note of scales fit the singers voice or
  the instruments capacity
• sentiment
• transmigration of scales
• ornamentation
• 12 possible tones most pieces use fewer than 12
  (usually five to seven)

151
Rhythm and meter

• syncopation distinguishes it from Chinese music
• sung poetry and Buddhist hymns are nonmetrical
• theatrical and ceremonial musics include multiple
  rhythmic patterns
• emphasis on the final beat of each unit
• metrical organization according to cycles of beats

152
Musical instruments

• instrumental music predominates in ritual and
  ceremonial musics
• instruments accompany the voice in chamber and
  theatrical musics

153
Idiophones the earliest and most numerous in
Vietnam

• bronze drum (trông dông) is the oldest
• large bronze bell (dai hông chung) played in
  Buddhist ceremonies
• gongs (chiêng, thanh la, dâu) used in ceremonies
  and theater
• bowl chime (chuông gia trì) punctuates sections
  of chant
• small bell (tiêu chung) calls the monks to
  assemble

154
Idiophones the earliest and most numerous in
Vietnam

• slit drums (mõ) used for chant, summoning people,
  or warning
• chimes (khánh) made of bronze and stone, found in
  temples
• clappers (phách, song lang and sinh tiên) used in
  various contexts
• cymbals (chap chõa) played in theatrical,
  festival, and ritual music

155
Membranophones

• trông is the generic name for one or two
  skin-headed drums
• small drum on a stand (trông bát nhã)
• small two-headed drum (trông bung)
• small, one-headed drum from the south (bông)

156
Membranophones (cont.)

• large drum (trông châu)
• battle drum (trông chiên) used in onstage battle
  scenes
• pair of drums (trông nhac) main drums of nhac le
  ensemble
• two-headed drum (trông com)

157
Chordophones

• zithers (dàn bâu, dàn tranh, dàn tam thâp luc)
• bowed lutes (dàn nhi, dàn cò phu, dàn gáo)
• plucked lutes (dàn dáy, dàn nguyêt, ty bà, dàn
  xên)

158
Aerophones

• flutes (sáo, tiêu)
• double-reed oboes (ken)

159
Folk songs

• genres
• singing occurs in three distinct stages
  greeting, contesting, farewell
• sung at seasonal festivals, work, private
  gatherings

160
Folk songs (cont.)

• genres
• hát
• quan ho
• ru
• hò
• ly
• hát phuóng vai

• miscellaneous songs
• satirical
• wishing
• card games
• narratives
• childrens songs

161
Chamber music

• ca trù (improvisatory chanted poetry with
  instruments and dancers)
• don ca tài tu (chamber music performed not for
  profit)
• ca huê (pre-composed music for strings from Huê)

162
Theater

• six major theatrical genres and 20 local
  folk-drama types
• folk drama provided the fundamental elements in
  creating dramatic gestures
• props guide all dance movements as well as
  decorate the stage

163
Theater (cont.)

• water puppet theater (rôi nuóc)
• interactive folk drama (hát chèo)
• classical theater (hát bôi or tuông)
• recitative (nói lôi)
• melodic types (bài hát)
• modal songs (diêu hát)

164
Theater (cont.)

• Western-style spoken drama (kich nói)
• early 20th century theater (cái luong)
• card game theater (hát bài chòi)
• vocal types reference parts of the body it is
  nonmetrical and improvisatory

165
Dance

• dance techniques, costumes and meanings have been
  incorporated into theater
• dances performed as part of yearly cycle of
  festivals (Buddhist, folk, ritual)
• theatrical dances
• folk dances
• court dances

166
Religious music

• influences from Buddhism, Confucianism, and
  Taoism
• earliest rituals derived from animism

167
Religious music (cont.)

• Buddhist liturgy
• cantillation of sutras and mantras (regional
  variation)
• poetic hymns
• many percussion instruments
• mixing speech and song
• châu van ritual (music serving as intermediary
  between living and dead)

168
Modern trends in Vietnamese music

• exposure to Roman Catholic missionaries and
  French colonialism
• early European musical influence
• new compositions romantic or activist-revolutiona
  ry
• modernization included French songs sung in
  Vietnamese
• invention or modification of Western instruments

169
Modern trends in Vietnamese music (cont.)

• Western classical music
• modern music
• new traditional music (cai biên)
• popular song
• the future of Vietnamese music
• modern folk song (dân ca)

170
Questions for Discussion

• Why is Vietnam more Westernized in some ways
  than the other nations?
• Why is theater so important and popular in
  Vietnam?
• What has Vietnam gained from it centuries-long
  contact with China?
• How do Vietnamese puppets differ from elsewhere?

171

• Singapore

172
The nation

• small island off the tip of Malaysia (comparable
  to Bahrain or Tonga in size)
• four distinct cultures Chinese, Malay, Indian,
  and Eurasian
• population of 4.5 million (77 Chinese but also
  Malays and Indians)

173
The Chinese

• opera (wayang), hand- and string-puppet theaters
  are important
• minstrel tradition (zouchang) performed during
  festive seasons
• chamber music from Chinas Fujian province
  (nanguan)
• Mandarin vocal music (xinyao)
• staged urban performances with Western
  instruments (getai)

174
The Malays

• vocal genres accompanied by drums (kompang and
  hadrah)
• traditional Malay vocal genre (dikir barat)
• Arab/Persian vocal tradition (ghazal)
• Malay operatic genre (bangsawan)
• horse trance dancing (kuda kepang)

175
The Indians

• Hindustani and Karnatic classical music
• bhajanai, film and temple music also predominate
• Indian music and dance are prevalent at Indian
  festivals in Singapore
• temples are patrons of Indian performing arts

176
Questions for Discussion

• What are the differences between musics of the
  three main groups?
• Is any of this music unique to Singapore, or is
  it all directly imported?
• What does it mean to have multiple ethnic groups
  competing in a small nation?
• Why do the Chinese perform theater so much more
  than the Malays or Indians?

177

• Upland and Minority Peoples of Mainland Southeast
  Asia

178
Language families of the mainland

• division of the mainland into lowland and upland
• 151 ethnic groups, with minority groups
  outnumbering the majority groups
• minority groups tend to live in the upland areas

179
Language families of the mainland (cont.)

• four main language families on the mainland
• Sino-Tibetan family
• Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family
• Tai family
• Austro-Asiatic family

180
Minority musics of Vietnam

• uplands people live near Cambodia, Laos, and
  China
• lowlands people live near the majority Viet
  people
• bronze gong ensembles are most representative of
  the uplands musics
• upland culture divides into two regions
  northeast and northwest

181
Minority musics of Vietnam (cont.)

• songs
• courtship and friendship
• narratives
• ritual songs
• lullabies and other songs

182
Minority musics of Vietnam (cont.)

• central highlands musical instruments
• gongs
• xylophones (wooden and bamboo)
• lithophones
• aerophones (flutes, oboes, free-reeds, animal
  horns)
• chordophones (zithers, spike fiddles)

183
Minority musics of Vietnam (cont.)

• northern musical instruments
• bronze gong ensembles
• wooden trough idiophone
• Lutes
• the Hmong have numerous musical instruments

184
Music of the upland minorities in Burma, Laos,
and Thailand

• the Golden Triangle upland people mostly live in
  small villages
• slash-and-burn agriculture impacts all aspects of
  their lives
• dancing to simple accompaniment
• simple traditional songs (no professional
  musicians)
• pentatonic scales
• prevalence of animism

185
Sino-Tibetan language family

• the Lahu approximately 600,000 people
• new year celebration includes free-reed mouth
  organ and love songs
• harvest celebration includes mouth organ, cymbal,
  gong and drum
• songs for weddings, funerals, healing, narration,
  and lullabies
• instruments free-reed mouth organ (naw) and
  Jews harp (ata)

186
Sino-Tibetan language family (cont.)

• the Akha (Tibeto-Burman) approximately 443, 000
  people
• many annual ceremonies and traditional festivals
• instruments lute (döm), mouth organ (lachi),
  Jews harp (chau)
• songs for courtship, healing, funerals

187
Sino-Tibetan language family (cont.)

• the Lisu (Tibeto-Burman) approximately 350,000
  people
• close attention to ritual and festival life
• instrumental music is metered vocal music is not
• songs for courtship, celebrations, religious
  events
• instruments free-reed mouth organ (fulu), flute
  (julü), and lute (subü)

188
Sino-Tibetan language family (cont.)

• the Karen (Tibeto-Burman) approximately 3.4
  million people
• ceremonies of prayer and propitiation
• songs for weddings, courtship, funerals,
  children, drinking, etc.
• legends accompanied by the harp (tünak)
• instruments harp (tünak), horn (kui), bronze
  drum (mahoratuk), bamboo tube zither (pap law),
  3-stringed lute (tha)

189
The Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) language family

• the Kmhmu approximately 500,000 people
• chanting and gong playing used in shamanic ritual
• songs for entertaining guests, courtship,
  weddings, harvests, new year
• instruments flutes (pii, tot), free-reed mouth
  organ (khen), lute (saw), Jews harp, bamboo
  beaters (klt), clapper (taaw taaw), gong, and
  bronze drum

190
The Tai-Kadai language family

• the Shan approximately 6 million people
• three major ensembles (Buddhist ceremonies,
  dramas, and entertainment)
• songs for social occasions, courtship, new year,
  planting and harvesting, fishing, drinking,
  cradle songs (no funeral songs)
• instruments xylphone (ranat thum), violin, drum
  (taphon), tuned drum set (patt waiñ), cymbals
  (chap), fiddle (toro), wooden block (sengkok)

191
The Miao-Yao language family

• the Yao approximately 2 million people
• weddings, funerals, harvests, new years
  festivals
• music related to life-cycle events and ceremonies
• the Hmong approximately 6 million people
• songs for courtship, weddings, funerals, new
  years festival
• instruments free-reed mouth organ (qeej), Jews
  harp (ncas), free-reed pipe (raj nplaim), flute
  (raj pus li), two-stringed bowed fiddle (xi xov)

192
The Miao-Yao language family (cont.)

• The Hmong (cont.)
• ritual music
• funerals
• courtship and weddings

193
The Indigenous Peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay
Peninsula

• tribal groupings of the Semang, the Senoi, and
  the Orang Melayu Asli
• lifestyle and its implications for musical
  culture
• instruments are easily made and discarded
• 2-string chordophone (kereb)
• xylophone (kongkong)
• tube zither (kerantung)

194
The Indigenous Peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay
Peninsula (cont.)

• animist religious philosophy and shamanistic
  practice
• Semang animism and musical shamanism
• Senoi Temiar singers and healers in a modern
  world
• acculturated music of the Orang Melayu Asli
• timbre as a significant musical parameter

195
The Indigenous Peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay
Peninsula (cont.)

• aboriginal Malays summon spirits using
  instruments
• tube zither (kerantung)
• Jews harp
• horizontal flute (buhbut)
• thigh xylophone (kongkong)
• oboe (serunai)

196
The lowland Cham

• approximately 155,000 people
• the Cham are Malays who came to Vietnam from Java
  arounc 200 CE
• influences from India and Islam
• instrumental genres take their names from dances
• instruments include oboe, drums, fiddles, gong,
  bells

197
Questions for Discussion

• What do the mainland upland people have in common
  with each other?
• What is the role of the spirit world among the
  upland people?
• How will courtship change as a result of
  modernization?
• How do the upland and lowland minorities differ
  from each other in geography as well as musical
  culture?