Lab 2

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Chemistry Comes Alive
Lab 2
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Matter

• The stuff of the universe
• Anything that has mass and takes up space
• States of matter
• Solid has definite shape and volume
• Liquid has definite volume, changeable
  shape
• Gas has changeable shape and volume

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Energy

• The capacity to do work (put matter into motion)
• Types of energy
• Kinetic energy in action
• Potential energy of position stored (inactive)
  energy

PLAY
Energy Concepts
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Major Elements of the Human Body

• Carbon (C)
• Hydrogen (H)
• Oxygen (O)
• Nitrogen (N)

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Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body

• Lesser elements make up 3.9 of the body and
  include
• Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
  sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), magnesium
  (Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe)
• Trace elements make up less than 0.01 of the
  body
• They are required in minute amounts, and are
  found as part of enzymes

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Atomic Structure

• The nucleus consists of neutrons and protons
• Neutrons have no charge and a mass of one
  atomic mass unit (amu)
• Protons have a positive charge and a mass of 1
  amu
• Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus
• Electrons have a negative charge and 1/2000 the
  mass of a proton (0 amu)

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Models of the Atom

• Planetary Model electrons move around the
  nucleus in fixed, circular orbits
• Orbital Model regions around the nucleus in
  which electrons are most likely to be found (like
  a cloud)

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Models of the Atom
Figure 2.1
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Molecules and Compounds

• Molecule two or more atoms held together by
  chemical bonds
• Compound two or more different kinds of atoms
  chemically bonded together

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Types of Chemical Bonds

• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen

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Comparison of Ionic, Polar Covalent, and Nonpolar
Covalent Bonds
Figure 2.8
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Formation of an Ionic Bond
Figure 2.5a
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Single Covalent Bonds
Figure 2.6a
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Cells The Living Units
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THE CELL
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Cell Theory

• The cell is the basic structural and functional
  unit of life (Schleiden Schwann)
• Organismal activity depends on individual and
  collective activity of cells
• Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by
  subcellular structure
• Continuity of life has a cellular basis
• Virchow expanded on the cell theory and concluded
  one living cell could only originate from
  another living cell

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Human cells are microscopic in size , but they
vary considerably in size and differ even more in
shape. For example flat, brick shaped,
threadlike, and irregular shapes.
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Composition of the CELL

• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasma
• Organelles
• Nucleus

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Part of the Cell

• Plasma membrane surrounds the entire cell,
  forming its outer boundary
• Cytoplasma living material inside the cell
  (except the nucleus)
• Nucleus this structure contains the genetic code

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• Plasma membrane
• It is the membrane that encloses the cytoplasm
  and form the outer boundary of the cell.
• This membrane is compose by two layers of
  phospolipids, also a fat molecule called
  cholesterol (help to stabilize) and proteins (as
  receptor)

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Plasma Membrane
Figure 3.3
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Functions of Membrane Proteins

• Transport
• Enzymatic activity
• Receptors for signal transduction

Figure 3.4.1
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Functions of Membrane Proteins

• Intercellular adhesion
• Cell-cell recognition
• Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular
  matrix

Figure 3.4.2
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Passive Membrane Transport Diffusion

• Simple diffusion nonpolar and lipid-soluble
  substances
• Diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer
• Diffuse through channel proteins
• Facilitated diffusion
• Transport of glucose, amino acids, and ions
• Transported substances bind carrier proteins or
  pass through protein channels

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Carriers

• Are integral transmembrane proteins
• Show specificity for certain polar molecules
  including sugars and amino acids

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Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane
Figure 3.7
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Effect of Membrane Permeability on Diffusion and
Osmosis
Figure 3.8a
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Effects of Solutions of Varying Tonicity

• Isotonic solutions with the same solute
  concentration as that of the cytosol
• Hypertonic solutions having greater solute
  concentration than that of the cytosol
• Hypotonic solutions having lesser solute
  concentration than that of the cytosol

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Active Transport

• Uses ATP to move solutes across a membrane
• Requires carrier proteins

PLAY
Active Transport
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Types of Active Transport
Figure 3.11
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Cytoplasma

• It is the specialized living material of cells
• It lies between the plasma membrane and the
  nucleus
• Numerous small structure (organelles) are part of
  the cytoplasma, along with the fluid that serves
  as the interior
• environment of each cell

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Specialized cellular compartments
• Membranous
• Mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
  and Golgi apparatus
• Nonmembranous
• Cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes

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Organelles

• Ribosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Mitocondria
• Lysosomes
• Centrioles

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CELL PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S)
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CELL PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S)
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CELL PART STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S)
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Mitochondria
Figure 3.17
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Figure 3.18a and c
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Golgi Apparatus
Figure 3.20a
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Nucleus

• Contains nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin,
  and distinct compartments rich in specific
  protein sets
• Gene-containing control center of the cell
• Contains the genetic library with blueprints for
  nearly all cellular proteins
• Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be
  synthesized

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Nucleoli

• Dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus
• Site of ribosome production

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Nucleus
Figure 3.28a
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Cell Cycle

• Interphase
• Growth (G1), synthesis (S), growth (G2)
• Mitotic phase
• Mitosis and cytokinesis

Figure 3.30
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Mitosis
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Cell Division

• Essential for body growth and tissue repair
• Mitosis nuclear division
• Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm

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Mitosis

• The phases of mitosis are
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

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Cytokinesis

• Cleavage furrow formed in late anaphase by
  contractile ring
• Cytoplasm is pinched into two parts after mitosis
  ends

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Early and Late Prophase

• Asters are seen as chromatin condenses into
  chromosomes
• Nucleoli disappear
• Centriole pairs separate and the mitotic spindle
  is formed

Fragments of nuclear envelope
Polar microtubules
Pair of centrioles
Early mitotic spindle
Centromere
Aster
Kinetochore
Kinetochore microtubule
Spindle pole
Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids
Late prophase
Early prophase
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Metaphase

• Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell
  with their centromeres aligned at the exact
  center, or equator, of the cell
• This arrangement of chromosomes along a plane
  midway between the poles is called the metaphase
  plate

Metaphase plate
Spindle
Metaphase
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Anaphase

• Centromeres of the chromosomes split
• Motor proteins in kinetochores pull chromosomes
  toward poles

Daughter chromosomes
Anaphase
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Telophase and Cytokinesis

• New sets of chromosomes extend into chromatin
• New nuclear membrane is formed from the rough ER
• Nucleoli reappear
• Generally cytokinesis completes cell division

Nucleolus forming
Contractile ring at cleavage furrow
Nuclear envelope forming
Telophase and cytokinesis
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THE MICROSCOPE
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PROCEDURES

• 1- Turn on the illuminator using the on/off
  switch
• 2- Turn the nosepiece to bring the 4X objective
  (scanner) into position
• 3- Raise the stage into its highest position
• 4- Place a slide of the letter e in the slide
  clamp on the stage
• 5- Turn the coarse adjustment knob to bring the
  e into focus
• 6- Measure the field (the brightly lighted circle
  that you see when you look through the ocular
  lens)
• 7- Center the e in your field of view and then
  rotate the nosepiece to 10X
• 8- Use the fine adjustment knob to focus until
  the image is sharp. Draw the image. Do not use
  the coarse adjustment
• 10- Rotate the nosepiece until the 40X. Draw the
  image

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CARES OF THE MICROSCOPE

• When moving the microscope, carry it with 2 hands
  (one hand to grip the arm and the other under
  the base
• Lenses have to be clean with lens paper (to keep
  them free of oil and dust).
• Do not use the coarse adjustment when focusing
  with the higher power objectives

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THE END