Rhetoric, Rationalization, and Bad Argument Strategies

1
Rhetoric, Rationalization, and Bad Argument
Strategies

• Informal Fallacies and Non-arguments

2
Argument from OutrageWhen anger functions as a
premise
3
Argument from OutrageWhen anger functions as a
premise

• May use selective presentation to attempt to
  create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger

4
Argument from OutrageWhen anger functions as a
premise

• May use selective presentation to attempt to
  create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger
• May attempt to justify letting anger over one
  thing influence judgment about another, unrelated
  thing

5
Argument from OutrageWhen anger functions as a
premise

• May use selective presentation to attempt to
  create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger
• May attempt to justify letting anger over one
  thing influence judgment about another, unrelated
  thing
• May simplistically attempt to focus anger on an
  easy target (scapegoating)

Dennis Miller on war with Iraq After 9/11, we
had to do something!
6
Scare Tactics/Argument by ForceWhen fear
functions as a premise
7
Scare Tactics/Argument by ForceWhen fear
functions as a premise

• May use selective presentation to attempt to
  create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear

8
Scare Tactics/Argument by ForceWhen fear
functions as a premise

• May use selective presentation to attempt to
  create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear
• May attempt to justify letting fear of one thing
  influence judgment about another, unrelated thing

9
Scare Tactics/Argument by ForceWhen fear
functions as a premise

• May use selective presentation to attempt to
  create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear
• May attempt to justify letting fear of one thing
  influence judgment about another, unrelated thing
• Depends on inappropriate beliefs about what is
  feared

To consider Hostage Syndrome -- acceptance of
captors beliefs by hostages
10
Argument from PityWhen sympathy functions as a
premise
11
Argument from PityWhen sympathy functions as a
premise

• Occurs primarily as self-deception

12
Argument from PityWhen sympathy functions as a
premise

• Occurs primarily as self-deception
• May make calculated demands on feelings of
  sympathy and compassion

13
Argument from PityWhen sympathy functions as a
premise

• Occurs primarily as self-deception
• May make calculated demands on feelings of
  sympathy and compassion
• May result in assumption of inadequately
  justified obligations

14
Argument from PityWhen sympathy functions as a
premise

• Occurs primarily as self-deception
• May make calculated demands on feelings of
  sympathy and compassion
• May result in assumption of inadequately
  justified obligations
• Can be mitigated by competent moral reasoning

15
Argument from EnvyWhen jealousy motivates
premises
Apple PolishingWhen flattery motivates premises

• Selection of premises may be influenced by
  irrelevant feelings
• Unstated (assumed) premises are likely
• Likely to occur as interior rationalization

16
Wishful ThinkingWhen hope or desire motivates
premises
17
Wishful ThinkingWhen hope or desire motivates
premises

• Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that
  thinking or wishing will change probability

18
Wishful ThinkingWhen hope or desire motivates
premises

• Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that
  thinking or wishing will change probability
• Key wishful thinking premise may be an
  explicit metaphysical belief

19
Wishful ThinkingWhen hope or desire motivates
premises

• Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that
  thinking or wishing will change probability
• Key wishful thinking premise may be an
  explicit metaphysical belief
• May occur as interior rationalization,
  explanation of faith, or cheerleading

20
Peer Pressure/Group ThinkWhen need for approval
or belonging motivates premises
21
Peer Pressure/Group ThinkWhen need for approval
or belonging motivates premises

• Claims accepted (function as true) because the
  group wants them accepted

22
Peer Pressure/Group ThinkWhen need for approval
or belonging motivates premises

• Claims accepted (function as true) because the
  group wants them accepted
• Known fact people may change beliefs or
  interpretations if they find themselves in the
  minority, even in a group of strangers

23
Peer Pressure/Group ThinkWhen need for approval
or belonging motivates premises

• Claims accepted (function as true) because the
  group wants them accepted
• Known fact people may change beliefs or
  interpretations if they find themselves in the
  minority, even in a group of strangers
• As nationalism, may be actively used to
  discourage critical thinking

24
RationalizingWhen inauthentic premises are
substituted for true motives to justify a
conclusion
25
RationalizingWhen inauthentic premises are
substituted for true motives to justify a
conclusion

• Misdirects attention from potentially relevant
  facts or ideas

26
RationalizingWhen inauthentic premises are
substituted for true motives to justify a
conclusion

• Misdirects attention from potentially relevant
  facts or ideas
• May constitute or result from self-deception

27
RationalizingWhen inauthentic premises are
substituted for true motives to justify a
conclusion

• Misdirects attention from potentially relevant
  facts or ideas
• May constitute or result from self-deception
• Substituted premises may also support unintended
  conclusions

28
Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common
PracticeWhen a widely-held belief that something
is true or right is deemed sufficient support
29
Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common
PracticeWhen a widely-held belief that something
is true or right is deemed sufficient support

• Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not
  accessible for evaluation

30
Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common
PracticeWhen a widely-held belief that something
is true or right is deemed sufficient support

• Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not
  accessible for evaluation
• Tends to gather strength with repetition

31
Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common
PracticeWhen a widely-held belief that something
is true or right is deemed sufficient support

• Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not
  accessible for evaluation
• Tends to gather strength with repetition
• When group decisions have performative power--as
  in most votes--what the group thinks actually can
  make a proposition true or make behavior right or
  wrong

32
Relativism/SubjectivismWhen truth is reduced to
perspective
33
Relativism/SubjectivismWhen truth is reduced to
perspective

• Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be
  treated differently

34
Relativism/SubjectivismWhen truth is reduced to
perspective

• Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be
  treated differently
• Legitimate differences in perception must be
  acknowledged

35
Relativism/SubjectivismWhen truth is reduced to
perspective

• Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be
  treated differently
• Legitimate differences in perception must be
  acknowledged
• Cultural variables and prerogatives must be
  identified

36
Relativism/SubjectivismWhen truth is reduced to
perspective

• Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be
  treated differently
• Legitimate differences in perception must be
  acknowledged
• Cultural variables and prerogatives must be
  identified
• Moral and ethical values are obvious cases in
  which preferences are decisive

37
Two Wrongs FallacyWhen wrong is taken for right
38
Two Wrongs FallacyWhen wrong is taken for right

• Begins with A harming B, or even being suspected
  of thinking harming B is OK

39
Two Wrongs FallacyWhen wrong is taken for right

• Begins with A harming B, or even being suspected
  of thinking harming B is OK
• B decides to engage in wrongful behavior just
  because A did or might

40
Two Wrongs FallacyWhen wrong is taken for right

• Begins with A harming B, or even being suspected
  of thinking harming B is OK
• B decides to engage in wrongful behavior just
  because A did or might
• Bs decision is simply reactive, and not the
  outcome of reasoned inference

41
Red Herring/SmokescreenWhen irrelevancies
obscure relevant ones

• Both tend to introduce material that the audience
  will find attractive

42
Red Herring/SmokescreenWhen irrelevancies
obscure relevant ones

• Both tend to introduce material that the audience
  will find attractive
• The red herring introduces distractions,
  especially ones that share significant features
  with the issue

43
Red Herring/SmokescreenWhen irrelevancies
obscure relevant ones

• Both tend to introduce material that the audience
  will find attractive
• The red herring introduces distractions,
  especially ones that share significant features
  with the issue
• The smokescreen introduces new topics and
  complications that obscure the issue