PYB1: Introducing Psychology: Key Approaches and the Study

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PYB1 Introducing Psychology Key Approaches and
the Study of Psychology

• Revision Material

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What is Psychology?Psychology is the scientific
study of behaviour and experience
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Scientific and Common sense explanations (1)

• Scientific Explanations
• use rigorous methods, including laboratory
  experiments
• use precise measurement of behaviour attitudes
  t o collect evidence data
• are more likely to produce evidence you can
  trust
• are objective
• are based on theories hypotheses
• use experiments investigations for evidence

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Scientific and Common sense explanations (2)

• Common sense explanations
• are subjective
• are based on anecdotes personal opinions
• use everyday observations for evidence
• are less likely to produce evidence you can
  trust

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Key Approaches and the Development of Psychology
in an Historical Context
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(1) Key figures and their influence on the
development of psychology
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Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
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Wilhelm Wundt key influences on psychology (1)

• Regarded as Founding father of Psychology.
• Wanted to establish Psychology as a
  separate/independent discipline. Created the
  first psychology laboratory at Leipzig this
  influenced development of the subject and other
  laboratories were set up in Europe, Great Britain
  and USA.

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Wilhelm Wundt key influences on psychology (2)

• His methods (e.g. introspection carefully
  analysing own thoughts feelings) not seen as
  objective but idea that people need to be studied
  under controlled conditions is highly
  influential. Regarded experimental method as only
  one to be used in Psychology, emphasis on
  measurement control this made psychology more
  scientific. This also led to rise of
  behaviourism in reaction to use of introspection.
• Influenced next generation of psychologists
  through development of structuralism Edward
  Titchener (trained by Wundt) influenced
  development of Psychology in USA.

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Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
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Charles Darwin key influences on psychology (1)

• Theory of evolution showed humans evolved in
  same way as other mammals. The difference between
  humans animals is difference not kind. Led to
  many psychologists (especially behaviourists)
  studying the behaviour of rats, pigeons, cats
  monkeys. Behaviourists argue that because humans
  have same evolutionary background as other
  animals, that principles explaining animal
  behaviour also apply to humans.
• Ideas about adaptation of the species being
  linked to survival/ part of our instinctive
  responses ideas about universality of behaviour
  influenced behaviourism.

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Charles Darwin key influences on psychology (2)

• Influenced development of Evolutionary
  Psychology. Evolutionary psychologists try to
  explain behaviour in terms of how people adapt to
  a constantly changing environment. Examine idea
  the genes not only influence physical
  characteristics (e.g. height) but also
  psychological characteristics (e.g.
  aggressiveness, musical ability)
• Influenced Freuds theories especially
  importance of sexual instinct. Sexual instinct
  central to Darwins Theory of Evolution also to
  Freuds theories.

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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
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Sigmund Freud key influences on psychology (1)

• Emphasis on unconscious drives. Assumption that
  much of our mental life happens at an unconscious
  level changed the way people viewed themselves.
  This influenced many other psychologists who used
  psychodynamic approach (e.g. Carl Jung, Erik
  Erikson Anna Freud.)
• Acceptance that early childhood experiences are
  important in determining adult personality. He
  developed the idea of stages of development in
  childhood which were a result of the sexual
  instinct (psychosexual development). Influenced
  developmental psychologists (e.g. Piaget
  Kohlberg.)

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Sigmund Freud key influences on psychology (2)

• Idea that painful/traumatic experiences in
  childhood may have effects in adult life, e.g. if
  child is separated from their mother for
  significant periods of time (maternal deprivation
  investigated by Bowlby).
• Influence of psychodynamic approach on psychiatry
  development of different therapies to treat
  people who suffer mental problems. Freud
  pioneered use of a psychological approach to
  treating mental disorders (psychoanalysis) has
  had lasting effect on psychology psychiatry.
  Also developed techniques like
  free-association.

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B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
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B.F.Skinner key influences on psychology (1)

• Very scientific nature of the approach has
  influenced all areas of psychology (use of
  experiments/laboratory conditions). E.g.
  cognitive psychology, social psychology and
  developmental psychology all use experimental
  method (although they use humans instead of
  animals). Scientific approach also influenced
  psychology to focus on observable, objective
  measures of behaviour ( move away from Wundts
  introspection). Insistence on scientific method
  gave psychology respect.

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B.F.Skinner key influences on psychology (2)

• Development of behaviourism through theory of
  operant conditioning. Theories of reinforcement
  learning through consequences.
• Emphasis on stimulus-response.
• Emphasis on learning from the environment/
  nurture. Behaviourist approach dominated
  psychology from c1920-1950s - influenced
  educational policy achievement in education is
  result of creating the right
  learning environment.

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B.F.Skinner key influences on psychology (3)

• Practical applications. Behaviourist principles
  are used effectively to treat people with
  phobias, anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsiv
  e disorders, through systematic desensitisation
  therapy (gradually exposed to more threatening
  situations). (N.B. Some psychologists, e.g.
  psychodynamic, argue this only treats symptoms
  not cause of problem.)

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Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
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Carl Rogers key influences on psychology(1)

• Theory of free-will. Humanistic psychologists see
  the person as an active agent who is able to
  change determine their own development. (
  contrast to behaviourist view which sees people
  as passively responding to stimuli from the
  environment.) Seeing people as active means each
  individual is responsible for their own actions
  and for their personal growth.
• Humanistic psychology has had great influence on
  psychology by promoting idea of personal growth
  (idea of self-actualisation).

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Carl Rogers key influences on psychology (2)

• View of each person as unique and individual.
  Each person has their own individual needs. To
  understand someone need an in depth knowledge of
  their life experiences and present feelings.
• Recognises importance of the subjective
  experience of the person. (Focus on the self).
  Humanistic psychology is non-scientific approach
  ( contrast to behaviourist) not trying to be
  objective. Problem in some ways as lack of
  scientific evidence to support theories of
  humanistic approach.
• Impact on therapy development of
  person-centred/client-centred therapy.

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(2) Key approaches psychodynamic, behaviourist,
humanistic and cognitive
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Psychodynamic Approach Key Features
(1)Emphasis on unconscious mind

• Emphasis on unconscious mental processes as main
  motivation of behaviour. Recognition of
  unconscious mind and unconscious processes.
  Emphasis on instinctual urges/drives (e.g. eros,
  thanatos).
• Determinism (opposite to free-will)

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Psychodynamic Approach Key Features (2)Focus
on childhood/psychosexual development

• Focus on childhood, importance of inter-personal
  relationships in psychological development.
• Psychosexual development child progresses
  through five stages oral, anal, phallic,
  latency genital
• If child experiences problems or great pleasure
  can result in fixation at that stage. If an adult
  becomes stressed in later life can lead to
  regression to an earlier stage.

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Psychodynamic Approach Key Features (3)
Freuds theory of personality

• Tripartite division of self (id, ego, superego).
• Id in the unconscious mind, works on the
  pleasure principle, includes innate sexual
  aggressive instincts.
• Ego in conscious rational mind, works on
  reality principle, develops in first 2 years of
  life.
• Superego childs conscience (sense of right and
  wrong), develops about age 5 when child adopts
  many values of same sex parent.

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Psychodynamic Approach Key Features (4)
Defence Mechanisms

• Freud believed that there were frequent conflicts
  among id, ego superego (especially between id
  superego). These conflicts lead to anxiety the
  ego protects itself by using Defence mechanisms.
• Examples of defence mechanisms include
  repression, displacement, projection, denial,
  intellectualisation.

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Behaviourist Approach Key Features (1) Operant
Conditioning

• Operant conditioning (e.g. Skinner box
  experiment).
• Understand behaviour through stimulus-response.
• Role of reinforcement and punishment learning
  through consequences. Reinforcement means
  behaviour more likely to be repeated,
  Punishment means behaviour less likely to be
  repeated. Reward.
• Generalise from animals to humans.
• Behaviour determined by environment
  (no free will).

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Behaviourist Approach Key Features (2)
Learning by Association

• John Watson - Little Albert experiment in
  classical conditioning can fear be taught?
  Results showed evidence of learning by
  association.
• Infant Albert shown neutral stimuli from 9 months
  old (rat, rabbit etc), when linked with
  unconditioned stimulus (striking an iron bar)
  began to show fear ( conditioned response) of a
  range of associated items.

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Behaviourist Approach Key Features (3)
Scientific Approach

• Rejection of introspection more scientific
  approach. Objectivity. Focus on observable
  behaviour only, not interested in unobservables
  (e.g. thoughts feelings.)

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Humanistic Approach Key Features(1)
Self-actualisation/uniqueness

• Human behaviour is influenced by a persons need
  to fulfil his or her potential. Focus on self and
  self-actualisation, refer to theorists e.g.
  Rogers Maslow, inc. hierarchy of human need.
• Each person is unique should focus on
  subjective experience (ideographic approach)
• Importance of unconditional positive regard.

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Humanistic Approach Key Features(2)
Client-centred/person centred approach

• Client-centred/person centred approach.
• Holism, the notion of the conscious and
  unconscious mind and the relationship between
  them the conscious mind acts as controlling
  factor.
• Ideas concerning the possibility of free will
  allows an individual to make choices about their
  life and which helps them to achieve their
  potential.

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Humanistic Approach Key Features(3)
Non-scientific approach

• Rejection of scientific methodology and reliance
  on case studies.
• Comparison with other approaches individual
  nature of approach more ethical than approaches
  with more scientific approach e.g. cognitive
  these have been accused of dehumanising
  individuals by studying them in laboratory
  settings. Lack of research in humanism makes it
  difficult to test the validity of the approach.

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Cognitive Approach Key Features(1) Humans as
information processors

• Emphasis on unconscious mental processes as main
  motivation of behaviour. Humans as information
  processors. Information processing means
  information from the environment is processed in
  an organised way coded, interpreted, stored
  retrieved e.g. memory.
• Concern with internal processes which are
  involved in making a response to a problem which
  is presented by the environment these internal
  processes are associated with thinking and
  problem solving.
• The mind acts as a mediator between the stimulus
  and the response, the mind and body are separate,
  the mind is active and the body is passive.

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Cognitive Approach Key Features(2) Scientific
approach

• Cognitive psychologists create models to
  represent thinking processes. Controlled
  laboratory experiments are conducted from which
  inferences are made about cognitive processes.
• Comparison to other approaches addresses
  limitations of behaviourist approach (S-R
  emphasis), contrasts with humanists individual
  approach to human thought processes, doesnt
  recognise unconscious mechanisms which are
  important to the psychoanalytic approach. Fails
  to take account of other processes such as
  emotion motivation.