Instruments – part 2

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Instruments part 2
www.lrn.dk/arnop.htm
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Precission Approach

• ILS - Instrument Landing System
• PAR - Precision Approach Radar (Military)
• GCA - Ground-Controlled Approach
  (mostly military)
• (PAR Precision)
• (ASR Non precision)

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Precission Approach

• A precision approach provides both horizontal and
  vertical guidance to the runway. In other words,
  it's tells you if you're deviating to the left or
  right and it tells you if you're too high or too
  low, before you ever see the runway

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DH / DA

• A decision height (DH) or decision altitude (DA)
  is a specified height or altitude in the
  precision approach at which a missed approach
  must be initiated if the required visual
  reference to continue the approach has not been
  acquired. This allows the pilot sufficient time
  to safely re-configure the aircraft to climb and
  execute the missed approach procedures while
  avoiding terrain and obstacles.

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Approach phases
Instrument approaches generally involve five
phases of flight Arrival where the pilot
navigates to the Initial Approach Fix (IAF a
navaid or reporting point), and where holding
can take place. Initial the phase of flight
after the IAF, where the pilot commences the
Approach navigation of the aircraft to the
Final Approach Fix (FAF), a position aligned
with the runway, from where a safe controlled
descent towards the airport can be initiated.
Intermediate an additional phase in more
complex approaches that may beApproach required
to navigate to the FAF.
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Approach phases
Final approach between 4 and 12 NM of straight
flight descending at a set rate (usually an
angle of between 2.5 and 6, normally 3 degrees).
Missed an optional phase should the required
visual reference forApproach landing not have
been obtained at the end of the final approach,
this allows the pilot to climb the aircraft to
a safe altitude and navigate to a position to
hold for weather improvement or from where
another approach can be commenced.
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ILS
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ILS
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ILS GP

• Glide path
• Vertical guidance.Tells you whether you are
  high, low or on glide path.
• GP is "slaved" to the LLZ frequency

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ILS LLZ

• Localizer
• Horizontal guidance.
• Tells you whether you are left, right or on
  center line.

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ILS categories
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LLZ approaches
Back-beam localizer Non-precision approach using
the localizer from the other end of the runway.
Localizer without GP This is also a non-precison
approach E.g. NOTAM EKYT -- RWY 26 ILS GP U/S
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ILS
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ILS

• Left To the right and low
• Right On glide slope and localizer

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ILS approach plate
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ILS approach plate
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ILS markers
OM Outer marker, approx 5 NM from threshold MM
Middle marker, approx 0,6 NM from threshold
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ILS markers
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ILS markers
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ILS markers
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GCA / PAR
Precision approach radar (PAR) is a type of radar
guidance system designed to provide lateral and
vertical guidance to an aircraft pilot for
landing, until the missed approach point is
reached. Controllers monitoring the PAR displays
observe each aircraft's position and issue
instructions to the pilot that keep the aircraft
on course during final approach. It is similar to
an instrument landing system (ILS) but requires
control instructions.
"on course, on glide path slightly above
glidepath "turn right 2 degrees"
Mobile (Land/Air) Precision Approach Radar/GCA in
Afghanistan
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RADAR
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RADAR

• Radio Detection and Ranging

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RADAR
The following figure shows the operating
principle of a primary radar. The radar antenna
illuminates the target with a microwave signal,
which is then reflected and picked up by a
receiving device. The electrical signal picked up
by the receiving antenna is called echo or
return. The radar signal is generated by a
powerful transmitter and received by a highly
sensitive receiver.
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RADAR
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ATC RADAR
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Transponder modes
To help improve the "visibility" of aircraft as
radar targets, aircraft are equipped with little
boxes called transponders. The transponder
detects the radar sweep, and in response,
generates its own very powerful return pulse.
This 200-watt pulse makes the aircraft much
easier to see on radar.
Mode A When the transponder receives a radar
signal it sends back a transponder code (or
"squawk code"). Mode C Mode 3 paired with
pressure altitude information Mode S Mode A
and C information and broadcast information about
the aircraft to the Secondary Surveillance
Radar (SSR) system, TCAS receivers on board
aircraft and to the ADS-B SSR system. This
information includes the call sign.
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Weather RADAR
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Weather RADAR
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Attitude instruments
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ADI
ADI (Attitude Direction Indicator )
EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator)
PFD (Primary Flight Display)
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PFD
PFD (Primary Flight Display)
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HSI
HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator )
EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator)
ND (Navigation Display)
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ND
ND (Navigation Display)
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Radio altimeter

• A radar altimeter or simply RA measures altitude
  above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft.
  This type of altimeter provides the distance
  between the plane and the ground directly below
  it, as opposed to a barometric altimeter which
  provides the distance above a pre-determined
  datum e.g. QNH.

Radio altimeters generally only give readings up
to 2,500 above ground level (AGL). Radar
altimeters are frequently used by commercial
aircraft for approach and landing, especially in
low-visibility conditions and also automatic
landings, allowing the autopilot to know when to
begin the flare maneuver. Radar altimeters is
also used for GPWS systems.
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GPWS
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GPWS
Ground Proximity Warning System
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GPWS
Ground Proximity Warning System
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TCAS
Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System
TCAS scans the vicinity by interrogating the
transponders of other aircraft. It then uses the
received transponder signals to compute distance,
bearing and altitude relative to the own
aircraft.When TCAS detects that an aircrafts
distance and closure rate becomes critical, TCAS
generates aural and visual annunciations for the
pilots.
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TCAS
TCAS detects any aircraft equipped with a
transponder flying in its vicinity, displays
potential and predicted collision targets and
issues vertical orders to de-conflict. It is
normally independent of ground based ATC systems.
Its detection capability is limited to 30nm and
9900ft. The system comprises a single channel
TCAS computer, 2 TCAS antennae, 2 mode S
transponders (1 active, 1 standby), and a
SSR/TCAS control panel. Traffic is only
displayed when ND range scale is 40nm or less
range scale changes are demanded. TCAS
interrogates the SSR of intruders and determines
for each intruder its relative bearing, range and
closure rate and its relative altitude if
available. TCAS then computes the intruder path,
its closest point of approach (F-pole) and tau
(the estimated time) before F-pole. Any
collision threats trigger aural and visual
advisories. TCAS optimises vertical orders to
ensure a sufficient path separation and minimal
change in VS for considering all intruders.
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TCAS
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TCAS
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TCAS TA / RA
TA is a so-called Traffic Advisory. TAs are given
to the pilot in form of the word TRAFFIC
displayed in yellow on the ND, and the aural
voice annunciation "traffic, traffic". This is
not the highest alert level. Its purpose is first
to call attention to a possible conflict. RA
means Resolution Advisory, the highest alert
level. Its purpose is to resolve a conflict by
providing the pilot with aural and visual pitch
commands. The pilot has to disengage the
autopilot immediately as the escape maneouver has
to be flown manually. Flight director commands as
well as ATC advisories have to be ignored. The
pitch command of an RA has always the highest
priority. If a target is approaching at the
same altitude   Climb, climb, climb! -- or
--   Descend, descend, descend!
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TCAS
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TCAS
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Flight guidance systems
The MD-80 digital flight guidance system is a
dual, autopilot, flight director and autothrottle
system with fail passive autoland capability. It
is designed for guidance throughout the full
flight regimes, from takeoff through climb,
cruise, descent and landing included the
roll-out.
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FMS
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FMS
A flight management system is a fundamental part
of a modern aircraft in that it controls the
navigation. The flight management system (FMS) is
the avionics that holds the flight plan, and
allows the pilot to modify as required in flight.
The FMS uses various sensors to determine the
aircraft's position. Given the position and the
flight plan, the FMS guides the aircraft along
the flight plan. The FMS is normally controlled
through a small screen and a keyboard. The FMS
sends the flight plan for display on the
Navigation Display (ND). All FMS contain a
navigation database. The navigation database
contains the elements from which the flight plan
is constructed. These are defined via the ARINC
424 standard. The navigation database (NDB) is
normally updated every 28 days, in order to
ensure that its contents are current.
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RNAV
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a method of navigation
that allows an aircraft to choose any course
within a network of navigation beacons, rather
than navigating directly to and from the beacons
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INS



An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a
navigation aid that uses a computer and motion
sensors to continuously track the position,
orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of
movement) of an aircraft without the need for
external references
All inertial navigation systems suffer from
drift. Small errors in the measurement of
acceleration and angular velocity are integrated
into progressively larger errors in velocity,
which is compounded into still greater errors in
position The inaccuracy of a good-quality
navigational system is normally fewer than 0.6 NM
per hour in position and on the order of tenths
of a degree per hour in orientation.
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GPS
Global Positioning System
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GPS
Global Positioning System
The GPS uses a constellation of between 24 and 32
medium earth orbit satellites (20.200 km out)
that transmit precise microwave signals, that
enable GPS receivers to determine their current
location, the time, and their velocity (including
direction). Each satellites orbiting earth twice
a day.
The system uses 3 satellites for position
determination. It measures the time it takes a
signal to travel from the satellite to the
receiver and convert it to distance. Uses atomic
clocks. A time difference of 1/10 sec equals a
3000 km errror.
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GPS
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DATALINK / ACARS
Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting
System
A digital datalink system for transmission of
small messages between aircraft and ground
stations via HF, VHF or SATCOM. Datalink makes it
possible for aircraft to communicate efficiently
with the ground at all times during a flight.
SAS uses the ACARS datalink system. It is a
datalink technology developed specifically for
the airline industry. A network of ground radio
stations ensure that aircraft can communicate
with SAS in real-time from practically anywhere
in the world. Satellites are used over oceans or
remote areas were no ground stations exist. ACARS
handles text-based information of essentially the
same type as can be sent via ground-ground telex.
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DATALINK / ACARS

• A person or a system on board may create a
  message and send it via ACARS to a system or user
  on the ground, and vice versa.Messages are sent
  both automatically and manually.
• There are 3 major components to the ACARS
  datalink system
• Aircraft equipment
• Service provider
• Ground processing system

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DATALINK / ACARS
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SATCOM
Short for Satellite Communications
World wide communication via IMMARSAT network. 4
geostationary satellites. 2 x atlantic, 1 x india
and 1 x pacific ocean.
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