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Foundations of Special Education

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Title: Foundations of Special Education


1
Foundations of Special Education
  • Dr. Thomas G. Ryan
  • 2004

2
What is Special Education?
  • Special Education Specially designed instruction
    to meet the unique needs and abilities of
    exceptional students.
  • Special Education is relatively new.
  • Historically, people with disabilities were often
    placed in hospitals, asylums, or other
    institutions that provided little, if any,
    education.

3
For instance, Ancient Greece
  • Physicians
  • Hippocrates
  • Mental Disorders
  • Mania
  • Melancholia
  • Phrenitis
  • Hysteria

4
Ancient Greece - Praxis
  • Physicians
  • Balance of Humors
  • Black bile Melancholia
  • Yellow bile anxieties
  • Blood mood swings
  • Phlegm ?
  • Treatment
  • massage / diet /exercise

5
Greece
  • Philosophers Apply knowledge
  • Socrates "Know thyself"
  • Epistemology
  • Revelation insight, intuition
  • Rationalism logic, if x then y
  • Empiricism science of computation

6
Socrates Teacher/Philosopher
7
Greek Philosophers
  • Socrates "Know thyself"
  • Treatment Knowledge
  • Reason to understand
  • Plato -- "Forms" - Emotions
  • Knowledge (reason)
  • Treatment
  • Education /Insight of psyche or mind (Socratic
    method)
  • "Sophronesterim" (house of moderation)

8
Philosophers History
  • Aristotle - "Empiricism"
  • Hot bile suicide and sexual impulse
  • Rise of the Roman Empire - Social
  • Greek decline ( "Post Aristotle" )
  • Epicurus
  • Cynics
  • Skepticism
  • Stoicism no emotion
  • Disability not able
  • Cicero
  • Galen

9
3rd to the 17th Century
  • "Dark Ages - Germanic tribes bring downfall of
    roman empire
  • Middle Ages - Renaissance and Reformation
    Rebirth
  • High Middle Ages - Bonadventure (1221-1274)
  • Soul and body distinct
  • Soul w/ body knows external world
  • Soul also knows spiritual world
  • Aquinas (1225-1275)

10
High Middle Ages
  • Roger Bacon (1214-1292) Bartholomaeus Angelicus
    (1275)
  • "Madness is infection of the foremost cell of the
    head... melancholy is the infection of the middle
    cell of the head...in the beginning the patient's
    head be shaven, and washed in lukewarm vinegar,
    and that he be kept or bound in a dark place...
    diverse shapes of faces and semblance of painting
    shall not be shewed tofore him...he shall be let
    of blood in a vain in the forehead, and bled as
    much as will fill an egg-shell... with ointments
    and balming men shall labour to bring him
    asleep...the head that is shaven shall be
    plastered with lungs of swine... or of a
    sheep...if the woodeness wildness dureth three
    days without sleep, there is no hope of
    recovery." Book VII, De Proprietatibus Rerum

11
Teacher/Philosopher
  • Bacon, Roger (1214?-1294), English Scholastic
    philosopher and scientist, one of the most
    influential teachers of the 13th century

12
Reformation
  • Treatment - First asylum in Spain 1408/9 Valencia
  • Moving into the scientific revolution
  • 1533 Montaigne - 1600 Gilbert publishes de
    Magnate - 1609 Galileo
  • 1610 Alonso Salagner witch trials without
    torture
  • 1616 Harvey and blood circulation
  • mid late 1600's outlaw burning of witches

13
Jean Marc Gaspard
  • French physician and educator Jean Marc Gaspard
    Itard was one of the earliest teachers to argue
    that special teaching methods could be effective
    in educating disabled children. In 1801 Itard
    discovered a young boy roaming wild in the woods
    of France. Between 1801 and 1805 Itard used
    systematic techniques to teach the boy, named
    Victor, how to communicate with others and how to
    perform daily living skills, such as dressing
    himself.

14
Edouard Séguin
  • In 1848 French psychologist Edouard Séguin, who
    had studied with Itard, immigrated to the United
    States and developed several influential
    guidelines for educating children with special
    needs. Séguins education programs stressed the
    importance of developing independence and
    self-reliance in disabled students by presenting
    them with a combination of physical and
    intellectual tasks.

15
1816
  • In 1816 American minister and educator Thomas
    Hopkins Gallaudet established the first public
    school for deaf students in the United States.

16
1829
  • The first school for blind students in the United
    States was founded in 1829 in Boston by American
    physician John Dix Fisher. The school is known
    today as Perkins School for the Blind and is
    located in Watertown, Massachusetts. Special
    education classes within regular school programs
    began at the beginning of the 20th century.

17
Ryerson, Adolphus Egerton (1803-1882),
  • Canadian educator instrumental in establishing
    general free education in Canada.
  • The public school system of Ontario was
    established on the basis of Ryerson's Report
    (1846), which he published after studying the
    British and Continental school systems. By 1871
    the goal of general free education had been
    reached in Upper Canada (Ontario).

18
Helen Keller A. Graham Bell
  • In 1882, a baby girl caught a fever that was so
    fierce she nearly died. She survived, but the
    fever left its mark. She could no longer see or
    hear. Helen Keller was born on June 27, 1880 in
    Alabama, the daughter of a newspaper editor.
    There has never been a precise diagnosis of the
    type and cause of the fever that struck Helen
    (Royal National Institute for the blind, 1995).
    The Kellers sought advice and remedies for Helen.
    As she approached the age of 7, they visited
    Alexander Graham Bell in Washington, DC. An
    activist in deaf education, Bell recommended
    they send Helen to the Perkins School for the
    Blind in Boston. A recent graduate of the
    school, Anne Sullivan, also known as Annie, was
    offered to tutor Helen. In March 1887, Annie
    arrived in Tuscumbia, Alabama to live with the
    Kellers as governess she graduated!

19
Hellen Keller
20
Radcliffe did not want her!
  • While still at Radcliffe College, Helen began her
    writing career which continued for 50 years.
    Helen proved to be a remarkable scholar. She had
    phenomenal memory as well as shy determination to
    succeed. While she was still at college she wrote
    The Story of my Life which was an immediate
    success (Tragedy to Triumph, no date). She
    went on to write 11 other books and numerous
    articles on blindness, deafness, social issues
    and womens rights. She graduated cum laude in
    1904.

21
http//www.graceproducts.com/ keller/life.html
  • In 1921, the American Foundation for the Blind
    (AFB) was organized. Helen was invited to be
    spokesperson for the organization. She traveled
    extensively giving speeches and raising funds for
    the blind (R.N.I B, 2001). She became a
    suffragette and a socialist, demanding equal
    rights for women and working-class people.
  • Helen Keller lived on into retirement. She often
    walked the grounds of Arcan Ridge and could be
    seen talking to herself with her fingers
    (R.N.I.B, 2001). She died in the afternoon of
    June 1, 1968, just before her 88th birthday.

22
Progressive Movement in Education 1920s
  • Many would call the decade of the American 1920s
    the decade of the Progressive Movement in
    Education. Progressive education espoused an
    experiential philosophy an education derived
    more from the student than from the teacher. It
    was a student-driven, student-centered concept of
    education that attempted to foster the precarious
    balance between individualism and collectivism.
    It was a grand and idealistic experiment, indeed.
    Leading this pedagogical foray was the
    unassuming, bespectacled former school teacher,
    John Dewey. It may be argued that Dewey
    single-handedly moved notions of progressive
    education into the educational forefront often
    with both criticism and cynicism.

23
John Dewey Philosopher/Teacher
24
Skinner - Behaviour
  • Burrhus Frederick (Fred) Skinner was born on
    March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. He
    completed his undergraduate degree in English at
    Hamilton College in Clinton, New York. Upon
    graduation Fred attempted to write a novel with
    little success and decided to pursue studies in
    Psychology where he was introduced to Watsons
    book Behaviorism and found himself intrigued with
    an empirical, scientific approach. After reading
    Bertrand Russells book Philosophy (1927) with
    his references to mentalistic terms in
    behavioristic ways, Skinner referred to himself
    becoming an instant behaviorist (Skinner,
    1988). In his readings he also became interested
    in the work of the Russian Physiologist Ivan
    Pavlov who was studying conditioned reflexes at
    the time.

25
B.F. Skinner - Behaviorist
26
APA award - Skinner
  • At the American Psychological Association (APA)
    annual conference in August, 1990 he received an
    unprecedented award of Citation for Outstanding
    Lifetime Contribution to Psychology. He died a
    few days later at the age of 86 on August 18,
    1990.

27
Universal Declaration of Human Rights - 1948
  • On December 10, 1948, the international community
    adopted the Universal Declaration of Human
    Rights, which recognized the common inherent
    dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all
    people around the world. The Universal
    Declaration of Human Rights was prepared under
    the chairmanship of former U.S. First Lady
    Eleanor Roosevelt. The document was passed
    unanimously by the UN General Assembly in
    December 1948.

28
Article 26 1948 U.N.
  • Everyone has the right to education. Education
    shall be free, at least in the elementary and
    fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
    compulsory. Technical and professional education
    shall be made generally available and higher
    education shall be equally accessible to all on
    the basis of merit.
  • Education shall be directed to the full
    development of the human personality and to the
    strengthening of respect for human rights and
    fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
    understanding, tolerance and friendship among all
    nations, racial or religious groups, and shall
    further the activities of the United Nations for
    the maintenance of peace.
  • Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of
    education that shall be given to their children

29
Blackboard Jungle 1950s
  • The movie Blackboard Jungle is hard hitting and
    probably a better representation of juvenile
    delinquency in the nineteen fifties than Rebel
    Without A Cause or The Wild One. The story
    revolves around an idealistic teacher on his
    first job in a tough urban all male high school. 
    The teacher, Richard Dadier, is played by Glenn
    Ford who performs the role almost too passively. 
    He is surrounded by apathetic teachers and a
    principle (Mr. Warneke, played by John Hoyt) who
    has trouble admitting that the school has
    discipline problems. The movie is based on the
    novel The Blackboard Jungle by Evan Hunter.

30
Teacher Student Relations
31
The Report of the Provincial Committee on Aims
and Objectives of Education in the Schools of
Ontario Hall-Dennis 1968 - Purpose
  • to identify the needs of the child as a person
    and as a member of society
  • to set forth the aims of education for the
    educational system of the Province
  • to outline objectives of the curriculum for
    children in the age groups presently designated
    as Kindergarten, Primary and Junior Divisions
  • to propose means by which these aims and
    objectives may be achieved
  • to submit a report for the consideration of the
    Minister of Education.

32
Jerome Bruener
  • 1961
  • Jerome Bruner, one of the architects of Head
    Start, publishes TheProcess of Education
  • This year, Harvard psychology professor Jerome
    Bruner publishes The Process of Education, a book
    that would be reprinted many times during the
    decade and would influence a whole generation of
    educators in the Canada and elsewhere.
  • Bruner divides the process of education into four
    basic parts structure, readiness for learning,
    intuitive thinking, and motives for learning.
    These form the major chapter headings for the
    book.

33
Benjamin Bloom publishes Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives The Classification of Educational
Goals
  • 1965, Benjamin Bloom publishes a book that would
    largely influence curriculum theory and practice
    for many years. Indeed, the book was published
    several times and translated into several
    languages, and it was read in faculties of
    education, teacher training programs and schools
    all over the world. The book influenced almost
    every aspect of formal education, from the way
    curricula were designed at national and
    provincial ministries of education to the way
    teachers were evaluating student performance at
    the classroom level. It is well known that Bloom
    and his associates identified three main domains
    of educational goals cognitive, affective and
    psychomotor. What is not well known is the
    history that led to the development of this
    framework.

34
Indian Control of Indian Education - 1972
  • In 1972, the Chiefs of the National Indian
    Brotherhood adopted the first written policy on
    Indian education, entitled Indian Control of
    Indian Education. It was presented to Minister
    Jean Chretien, of Indian Affairs and Northern
    Development, on December 21, 1972. This policy
    was written as a comprehensive position paper
    that articulated principles of local control,
    parental responsibility and culturally based
    curriculum. "We want education to provide the
    setting in which our children can develop the
    fundamental attitudes and values which have an
    honoured place in Indian tradition and culture."
    (National Indian Brotherhood, 1972, p.2)

35
Parti Québecois - 1977
  • Parti Québecois enacts Bill 101, restricting
    access to an education in English
  • Designed to preserve and enhance the French
    language in the province of Québec, Bill 101 was
    passed into law on August 26, 1977, continuing
    the centuries-long quest to make Canadas largely
    francophone province as French as possible.

36
Phase 1 1980-1991
  • Amendments to the Education Act, (Revised
    Statutes of Ontario, 1980 more commonly referred
    to as Bill 82) brought into place mandatory
    instead of permissive requirements for special
    education, including a committee procedure for
    determining the eligibility of students for
    special education placement

37
1980 Act
  • The 1980 Act was also innovative in mandating
    universal access, and a right of appeal provision
    whereby parents could appeal the designation of
    their child as "exceptional" and the proposed
    educational placement for the child.

38
Court Challenges 1980s
  • The 1980 Act included a provision for parental
    choice, with an appeals and Tribunals hearing
    procedure to deal with disputes between the board
    and parents, but the system was biased in
    over-representing the School Board on the Appeal
    hearing panel, and the only issues open to
    dispute were the designation as exceptional and
    the placement of the student. Parents could not,
    and still cannot, appeal the nature and content
    of the programs or services provided by the
    school within the placement (Metcalf, 1987). In
    Booth's (2000) terms, the Act provided for access
    to but not participation in educational programs.

39
Fully Implemented by 1985
  • This was challenged in the Ontario Court of
    Appeal (Dolmage v. Muskoka Board of Education and
    the Ministry of Education, (1985), 49 O.R. (2d)
    546 (Div. Ct.)) in which the parents lost, but
    not without an obiter dictum statement in the
    judgment that led to further Tribunal hearings
    and challenges in the courts (Barger v. North
    York Board of Education, 27th June, 1984,
    Regional Special Education Tribunal Ormerod v.
    Wentworth (County) Board of Education, 5 June
    1987,Regional Special Education Tribunal Hysert
    v. Carleton Board of Education, 8752, Ont. H.C.)
    that loosened the restrictive qualities of the
    right of appeal provision.

40
Parents fight for Inclusion!
  • The Education Act (R.S.O.1980) was fully
    implemented in 1985 after a phase-in period,
    concurrent with the repatriation of the Canadian
    Constitution to Ottawa from Westminster, and the
    establishment of the Canadian Charter of Rights
    and Freedoms. The latter contains an equity
    clause, 15, prohibiting discrimination on the
    basis of, among other things, disability. Since
    1985, the courts have been the major recourse for
    parents who had disputes about the provisions
    supplied to their children with disabilities.
    Foremost among these have been claims for
    inclusive educational placements, with
    appropriate programs and support services, such
    as the landmark case heard at the Supreme Court
    of Canada (Eaton v.Brant County, SCC 24668, 7
    Feb. 1997).Other events in the 80s included new
    perspectives. For Instance.....

41
All I Really Needed to Know I Learned in
Kindergarten - 1986
  • Robert Fulghum
  • When Robert Fulghums book arrived in bookstores
    in 1986 it was the beginning of a publishing
    phenomenon not unlike the Harry Potter craze
    today. His humorous, gentle stories convey a
    clear message that it is important to form a
    moral code and stick to it. The short, simple
    collection of random but careful thoughts caught
    the publics imagination and surged to the top of
    the bestseller lists. The book and its sequels
    have sold 15 million copies in over 90 countries.
    Robert Fulghums uncommon ability to communicate
    his wisdom, which is primarily basic common
    sense, has made him a very wealthy man.

42
All I Really Needed to Know I Learned in
Kindergarten - 1986
  • Share everything.
  • Play fair.
  • Dont hit people.
  • Put things back where you found them.
  • Clean up your own mess.
  • Dont take things that arent yours.
  • Say youre sorry when you hurt somebody.
  • Wash your hands before you eat.
  • Flush.
  • Warm cookies and milk are good for you.
  • Live a balanced lifelearn some and think some
    and draw and paint and sing and dance and play
    and work every day some.
  • Take a nap every afternoon.
  • When you go out into the world, watch out for
    traffic, hold hands, and stick together.
  • Be aware of wonder.

43
Changes 1991-1995 Ontario
  • Under a left-leaning provincial government ,
    elected on an equity and social justice platform,
    the out-of-court settlement of one such court
    case led to a statement by the Ministry of
    Education in June 1994, that was the first
    official indication that Ontario schools should
    consider inclusion the integration of
    exceptional pupils into local community
    classrooms should be the norm in Ontario,
    wherever possible, when such a placement meets
    the pupil's needs and where it is according to
    parental choice...We recognize that an integrated
    setting will not be appropriate for every child"
    (Memorandum to Directors, Superintendents, and
    Principals, June 9th 1994).

44
Ontario Education - Tensions
  • In effect, the Ontario Education Act, as amended
    in 1980, promoted categorical identification,
    programs that were at the discretion of the
    school system, and parental choice that was
    limited to the two technicalities, the
    categorical designation of the student as
    exceptional, and the placement of that student.
    Both of these could be stated in terms such as
    "the student has a learning disability and will
    be placed in a class for students with learning
    disabilities". The parents' rights to challenge
    the decision recommended by the school board were
    limited to that wording and not to any of the
    programs and services available in that
    classroom.

45
MOE inflexible!
  • Special education programs and services appeared
    in the Act only as definitions and were not
    mandatory, leaving their implementation to the
    discretion of the school board. Consequently, the
    provisions in the I.E.P. including such services
    as speech training and counseling, and personnel
    such as interpreters, social workers and
    consultants to teachers for hearing impairment,
    low vision and behavioral difficulties could not
    be challenged by parents through appeals.

46
Labels, Categories Past era
  • The twelve categories of disability, under five
    headings (intellectual, communicational,
    behavioral, physical and multiple) were defined
    by the Ministry, (Handbook for Special Education,
    1984) and their use was required during annual
    school board reports of category counts, even
    though the prevailing government had made a major
    shift in recognizing the rights of parents to
    have their child placed in inclusive settings.
    The categories continue to this day to be the
    criteria used to allocate special educational
    resource supplements to the school systems in
    Ontario.

47
1990,s, 1995 Election P.C.
  • The Harris government was elected on a platform
    of lowered taxes, school reform and greater
    public accountability. It represents a major
    swing to the right compared with earlier
    governments, and is committed to balanced
    budgets, increased competition and privatization,
    devolution of control to local school councils of
    elected parents, while retaining resource
    allocation at the centre with stringent auditing.

48
Mike Harris North Bay to ?
  • Mike Harris looks tough, talks tough and for
    nearly seven years has run a tough government in
    Ontario that has influenced cost-cutting
    governments across the country.

49
Turbulence 1995 to present!
  • Inclusive classrooms have become the norm for
    fiscal rather than moral reasons. Ontario teacher
    morale is at an all time low. Teachers are
    leaving the profession in significant numbers
    fueled in part by an early retirement incentive,
    but also by a professional perspective that is at
    odds with the paradigm shift to the right. They
    do not know how to cope with the multiple
    innovations being demanded of them. In 1997 eight
    major reform initiatives were implemented that
    touched every corner of the teaching profession,
    and in the Fall of 1998 the province's teachers
    staged an illegal work stoppage, illegal since
    they walked out on their contract with their
    employers, the school boards.

50
Liberals take root!
  • "We want to make sure that money is focused on
    the priorities we share -- and the results we
    need. Lets deliver excellence for all in our
    public schools...the health care we need...clean,
    safe communities that work."Dalton McGuinty

51
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