Elements and the Periodic Table

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• Elements and the Periodic Table

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• Classification is arranging items into groups or
  categories according to some criteria.
• The act of classifying creates a pattern that
  helps you recognize and understand the behavior
  of fish, chemicals, or any matter in your
  surroundings.

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• Classifying Matter

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• Matter is usually defined as anything that has
  mass and occupies space.

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Disorder Some space Particles closer together
Order Particles fixed in position
Total disorder Lots of empty space
Gas Liquid
Solid
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• Solids, Liquids, and Gases
• Gases have no defined shape or defined volume
• Low density
• Liquids flow and can be poured from one container
  to another
• Indefinite shape and takes on the shape of the
  container.
• Solids have a definite volume
• Have a definite shape.

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• Mixtures and Pure Substances
• A mixture has unlike parts and a composition that
  varies from sample to sample
• A heterogeneous mixture has physically distinct
  parts with different properties.
• A homogeneous mixture is the same throughout the
  sample
• Pure substances are substances with a fixed
  composition

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• A classification scheme for matter.

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• A physical change is a change that does not alter
  the identity of the matter.
• A chemical change is a change that does alter the
  identity of the matter.
• A compound is a pure substance that can be
  decomposed by a chemical change into simpler
  substances with a fixed mass ratio
• An element is a pure substance which cannot be
  broken down into anything simpler by either
  physical or chemical means.

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• Sugar (A) is a compound that can be easily
  decomposed to simpler substances by heating. (B)
  One of the simpler substances is the black
  element carbon, which cannot be further
  decomposed by chemical or physical means.

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EXAMPLE

• Isopropyl alcohol is a
• heterogeneous mixture
• homogeneous mixture
• pure substance
• Compound
• pure substance and compound

E
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• Elements

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• Reconsidering the Fire Element
• The phlogiston theory viewed phlogiston as a
  component of all matter.
• The burning of a material was considered to be
  the escaping of phlogiston from the matter.
• If a material did not burn, it was considered to
  contain no phlogiston.

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• The phlogiston theory. (A) In this theory,
  burning was considered to be the escape of
  phlogiston into the air. (B) Smelting combined
  phlogiston-poor ore with phlogiston from a fire
  to make a metal. (C) Metal rusting was considered
  to be the slow escape of phlogiston from a metal
  into the air.

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• Discovery of Modern Elements
• Antoine Lavoisier suggested that burning was
  actually a chemical combination with oxygen.
• Lavoisier realized that there needed to be a new
  concept of elements, compounds, and chemical
  change.
• We now know that there are 89 naturally-occurring
  elements and at least 23 short-lived and
  artificially prepared.

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• Priestley produced a gas (oxygen) by using
  sunlight to heat mercuric oxide kept in a closed
  container. The oxygen forced some of the mercury
  out of the jar as it was produced, increasing the
  volume about five times.

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• Lavoisier heated a measured amount of mercury to
  form the red oxide of mercury. He measured the
  amount of oxygen removed from the jar and the
  amount of red oxide formed. When the reaction was
  reversed, he found the original amounts of
  mercury and oxygen.

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• Names of Elements
• The first 103 elements have internationally
  accepted names, which are derived from
• The compound or substance in which the element
  was discovered
• An unusual or identifying property of the element
• Places, cities, and countries
• Famous scientists
• Greek mythology
• Astronomical objects.

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• Here are some of the symbols Dalton used for
  atoms of elements and molecules of compounds. He
  probably used a circle for each because, like the
  ancient Greeks, he thought of atoms as tiny,
  round hard spheres.

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• The elements of aluminum, Iron, Oxygen, and
  Silicon make up about 88 percent of the earth's
  solid surface. Water on the surface and in the
  air as clouds and fog is made up of hydrogen and
  oxygen. The air is 99 percent nitrogen and
  oxygen. Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon make up 97
  percent of a person. Thus almost everything you
  see in this picture us made up of just six
  elements.

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Atomic theory
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Daltons Postulates

• Every element is composed of tiny particles
  called atoms
• All atoms of a given element are identical
• Atoms of different elements have different
  properties
• Atoms of an element are NOT changed into atoms
  ofanother element by chemical processes
• Matter can neither be created nor destroyed
• Compounds are formed when atoms of more than
  oneelement combine

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Daltons Laws

• The Law of Constant Composition
• Any given compound always consists of the same
  atoms and the same ratio of atoms. For example,
  water always consists of oxygen and hydrogen
  atoms, and it is always 89 percent oxygen by
  mass and 11 percent hydrogen by mass
• 2. The Law of Conservation of Mass
• The total mass of materials before and after a
  chemical
• reaction must be the same. For example, if we
  combine
• 89 grams of oxygen with 11 grams of hydrogen
  under
• the appropriate conditions, 100 grams of water
  will be
• producedno more and no less.

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Daltons Laws
3. The Law of Multiple Proportions If two
elements combine to form more than one
compound,the masses of one of the elements that
can combine with a given mass of the other
element are related by factors of small
wholenumbers For example, water has an
oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 7.91. Hydrogen
peroxide, another compound consisting of oxygen
and hydrogen, has an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass
ratio of 15.81. The ratio of these two ratios
gives a small whole number.
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MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
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• Chemical Symbols
• There are about a dozen common elements that have
  s single capitalized letter for their symbol
• The rest, that have permanent names have two
  letters.
• the first is capitalized and the second is lower
  case.
• Some elements have symbols from their Latin
  names.
• Ten of the elements have symbols from their Latin
  or German names.

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• Symbols and Atomic Structure
• A molecule is a particle that is composed of two
  or more atoms held together by a chemical bond.
• Isotopes are atoms of an element with identical
  chemical properties, but different masses due to
  a difference in the number of neutrons.
• The atomic mass of an element is the average of
  all the atomic masses of the isotopes.
• an isotopes contribution is determined by its
  relative abundance.

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• The mass of an element is the mass of the element
  compared to an isotope of carbon Carbon 12.
• Carbon 12 is assigned an atomic mass of 12.00 g.
• 12.00 is one atomic mass unit
• The number of protons and neutrons in an atom is
  its mass number.
• Atomic numbers are whole numbers
• Mass numbers are whole numbers
• The atomic mass is not a whole number.

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Charge (if ion)
Atomic Mass
Symbol
Atomic Number
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Hydrogen
Protons 1 Neutrons 0 Electrons 1
H
1
1
31
Sodium
Protons 11 Neutrons 12 Electrons 11
Na
23
11
32
Rhenium
Protons 75 Neutrons 111 Electrons 75
Re
186
75
33
Rhenium isotope
Protons 75 Neutrons 112 Electrons 75
Re
187
75
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EXAMPLE
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are
found in an atom of
Cs
Atomic number protons and electrons There are
55 protons and 55 electrons
Mass number sum of protons and neutrons 133
55 78 There are 78 neutrons
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• The Periodic Law

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• Dmitri Medeleev gave us a functional scheme with
  which to classify elements.
• Mendeleevs scheme was based on chemical
  properties of the elements.
• It was noticed that the chemical properties of
  elements increased in a periodic manner.
• The periodicity of the elements was demonstrated
  by Medeleev when he used the table to predict to
  occurrence and chemical properties of elements
  which had not yet been discovered.

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• Mendeleev left blank spaces in his table when the
  properties of the elements above and below did
  not seem to match. The existence of unknown
  elements was predicted by Mendeleev on the basis
  of the blank spaces. When the unknown elements
  were discovered, it was found that Mendeleev had
  closely predicted the properties of the elements
  as well as their discovery.

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• The Periodic Law
• Similar physical and chemical properties recur
  periodically when the elements are listed in
  order of increasing atomic number.

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• The Modern Periodic Table

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• Introduction
• The periodic table is made up of rows of elements
  and columns.
• An element is identified by its chemical symbol.
• The number above the symbol is the atomic number
• The number below the symbol is the rounded atomic
  weight of the element.
• A row is called a period
• A column is called a group

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• (A) Periods of the periodic table, and (B) groups
  of the periodic table.

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• Periodic Patterns
• The chemical behavior of elements is determined
  by its electron configuration
• Energy levels are quantized so roughly correspond
  to layers of electrons around the nucleus.
• A shell is all the electrons with the same value
  of n.
• n is a row in the periodic table.
• Each period begins with a new outer electron shell

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• Each period ends with a completely filled outer
  shell that has the maximum number of electrons
  for that shell.
• The number identifying the A families identifies
  the number of electrons in the outer shell,
  except helium
• The outer shell electrons are responsible for
  chemical reactions.
• Group A elements are called representative
  elements
• Group B elements are called transition elements.

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• Chemical Families
• IA are called alkali metals because the react
  with water to from an alkaline solution
• Group IIA are called the alkali earth metals
  because they are reactive, but not as reactive as
  Group IA.
• They are also soft metals like Earth.
• Group VIIA are the halogens
• These need only one electron to fill their outer
  shell
• They are very reactive.
• Group VIIIA are the noble gases as they have
  completely filled outer shells
• They are almost non reactive.

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• Four chemical families of the periodic table the
  alkali metals (IA), the alkaline earth metals
  (IIA), halogens (VII), and the noble gases
  (VIIIA).

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Metal Elements that are usually solids at room
temperature. Most elements are metals.
Non-Metal Elements in the upper right corner of
the periodic Table. Their chemical and physical
properties are different from metals.
Metalloid Elements that lie on a diagonal line
between the Metals and non-metals. Their
chemical and physical properties are
intermediate between the two.
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• When an atom or molecule gain or loses an
  electron it becomes an ion.
• A cation has lost an electron and therefore has a
  positive charge
• An anion has gained an electron and therefore has
  a negative charge.

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• Elements with 1, 2, or 3 electrons in their outer
  shell tend to lose electrons to fill their outer
  shell and become cations.
• These are the metals which always tend to lose
  electrons.
• Elements with 5 to 7 electrons in their outer
  shell tend to gain electrons to fill their outer
  shell and become anions.
• These are the nonmetals which always tend to gain
  electrons.
• Semiconductors (metalloids) occur at the dividing
  line between metals and nonmetals.

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EXAMPLE
What would the charge be on a sodium ion?
Since sodium in in Group IA it is a metal and so
would LOSE an electron
You can tell how many would be lost by the group
number Group 1A elements lose 1 electron
So the charge would be 1
Remember an electron is negatively charged. When
you lose them atom becomes positively
charged when you gain them it becomes
negatively charged
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EXAMPLE
How would you right the symbol for the sodium
CATION?
Na
1
How many outer electrons does sodium have before
it loses one?
It has 1remember the group number!