The transmission of Arthurian narratives to Continental Europe

1
The transmission of Arthurian narratives to
Continental Europe

• The Matter of Britain (La Matière de la Bretagne)

2
The transmission of Arthurian narratives to
Continental Europe

• How did poets who knew no Celtic language come
  into possession of a fund of stories, full of
  Welsh and Breton names, localized in far off
  places with names like Caerleon, Caerwent,
  Cardigan, Tintagel, Edinburgh?

3
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The key to the massive transmission of Welsh and
  Breton Arthurian narratives to a European context
  depends very much on the fact of the expansion of
  the Norman conquest of Britain, including
  significantly the south of Wales.
• Another important link is that between the
  Normans and the Bretons which pre-dates the 1066
  invasion of the Island of Britain.
• The Breton connection is also important in the
  period of Norman hegemony in Britain.

4
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Norman influence in Britain does in fact pre-date
  the invasion.
• There had been many marriages between the
  Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and the Normans.
• Emma, daughter of Duke Richard of Normandy
  married Ethelred in 1002.
• Trade relations between Normandy and England
  created close contacts.
• Even Norman settlements had begun (eg Hereford in
  the west Midlands of England on the border with
  Wales).

5
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• In fact William the Conquerors (Guillaume le
  Conquérant) army was a mixture of ethnic groups
  all generally called Norman (but inaccurately).
  
• Certainly the largest non-Norman contingent
  consisted of Breton mercenaries probably led by
  either Alan Ruz (Rufus) or Brian.
• They and the consequent groups of Bretons found
  themselves in many parts of Britain after 1066,
  probably aware that their ancestors had for the
  main part left the same island in the 3-6th
  centuries.

6
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Many of the Bretons were amongst the most
  faithful followers of William (although the
  Normans and the Bretons had been in conflict for
  several centuries).
• Alan Ruz was given land in Yorkshire in a
  strategic point in defence of the country against
  the Scots. He also had extensive lands in east
  Anglia and Lincoln.

7
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The Normans soon invaded parts of Wales.
• This was especially true in the borderlands
  between England and Wales (the Marches) and the
  south of Wales as far as Pembrokeshire (SW
  Wales).
• In fact the only part of Wales that remained
  independent of the Normans was Gwynedd, the NW of
  Wales. Their resistance would last another 200
  years until the time of Edward I.

8
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The Normans soon dominated the church throughout
  Britain, including most of Wales.
• Three of the four bishoprics were in the hands of
  Normans.
• The Normans also embarked upon an unprecedented
  programme of church building (cathedrals,
  abbeys).
• Clearly in such an atmosphere, the Normans would
  be in close contact with the Welsh as they
  continued to be with the Bretons. Brittany had
  recently become part of the Norman empire in
  1166.
• This in itself has an Arthurian dimension

9
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The consolidation of Norman power in insular and
  continental terms reached its culminating point
  during the mid-twelfth century.
• The marriage of Henry II (Williams g g grandson)
  to Eleanor of Aquitaine led to a dominion which
  stretched from England, Normandy, Brittany and
  most of France south of the Loire river.

10
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• With a strong Breton contingent in the invasion
  and later settlements of Britain (post-1066),
  there was no doubt a feeling that they were in a
  sense returning to the island of their ancestors
  (Wales, Cornwall, the south west in general).
  Linguistically at this time Cornish and Breton
  were very similar and probably Bretons and Welsh
  people could make themselves understood in their
  own languages.
• This would have been especially true in areas
  like Monmouth and the borderland of Wales and
  England where they settled as well as in Cornwall
  itself (Cornwall and Brittany had always retained
  contacts over the centuries and would until the
  Reformation in the 16th century.

11
Brittany-Breizh

• Map of Brittany in NW France

12
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The infant duchess Constance of Brittany (d of
  Conan IV) was betrothed to Henry IIs son.
• Their offspring was Arthur (1187-1203), the
  embodiment of the Breton hope that Arthur, the
  long-awaited leader would return again to lead
  his people.
• It has been argued by historians of Brittany
  (esp. Léon Fleuriot) that the Arthur of Breton
  tradition was a symbol of Brythonic unity and a
  hope for the future after their long migrations,
  and that Arthur as a name remained for them a
  potent symbol until at least the 14th century.

13
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The transmission of the Arthurian material could
  only take place in a relatively stable geographic
  area where mobility by the travelling
  storytellers, clerics, and courtiers was
  comparatively safe.

14
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The twelfth century as we have seen was very much
  the very busy multi-cultural crossroads which
  allowed the transmission of Arthurian material
  into French (and soon after into English and
  other languages of Western Europe).
• Geoffrey of Monmouth as we have also seen was the
  first to write extensively and coherently about
  the Arthur of Welsh tradition. He wrote in Latin
  which defined his potential audiences.

15
The transmission of Arthurian narratives the
beginnings

• Wace turned Geoffreys Latin prose into
  Norman-French verse.
• Béroul and Thomas both introduced the Tristan
  story into French literature (although native
  Celtic versions are late and meagre).
• Marie de France wrote lays(lais) (stories to be
  sung to harp or lyre) in the manner of the
  Bretons.
• Chrétien de Troyes the author of important verse
  narratives drawing directly or indirectly on
  native materials.
• Robert de Boron-his interest was in Grail tales.

16
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Although we have seen to what extent Geoffrey
  depended on traceable Welsh materials to build
  his vision and portrait of Arthur and his
  achievements (as well as his imagination), it is
  quite clear from the earliest Arthurian
  literature in French that Geoffreys text was
  taken as a basis for many suppositions about
  Arthur but that these French storytellers had
  access to a whole array of native tradition not
  even alluded to in Geoffrey.

17
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• This disintegrating Celtic mythology (including
  Arthur) becomes the matrix for the fragments of
  Brythonic narrative found in Grail stories, other
  heroic materials, and Otherworld allusions which
  are found strewn throughout the literature of the
  time.

18
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• This material becomes the source of Arthurian
  tales throughout the whole of the Angevin empire
  (Henry II) and even in the important Occitan
  literature of southern France- the work of the
  troubadours.

19
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• One of the clearest indicators that French
  writers had access to native source-material
  comes from the personal names that occur in the
  French texts.
• Very many (but not all) are easily recognized as
  traditional characters from the immense corpus of
  early Welsh narrative (quite separate from Arthur
  but integrated into his material).
• Some examples

20
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Carados (Caradog) Yvains (Owain), Gauvain
  (Gawain, Gwalchmai), Bedoier (Bedwyr), Kai, Keu,
  Kei (Cai), Guenever, (Gwenhwyfar).
• One of the key texts in French in which we find a
  large number of these native names (Brythonic
  names) is Erec et Enide by Chrétien de Troyes
  (c1170). He has some quite elaborate Welsh names
  in his text

21
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Ydier fiz Nut (Edern vab Nudd), Girflet fiz Do
  (Gilfaethwy fab Dôn), Karados Briesbraz (Caradog
  Breichfras), Mabongrain (Mabon), Maheloas
  (Melwas), Meliadoc (Meiriadog), Uter Pandragon
  (Uthr Pendragon), Tor fiz Ahes (Twrch Trwyth?),
  Urien (Urien), Lot (Lludd),Yvains li filz Uriein
  (Owain ap Urien).

• (Placenames) Caradigant (Ceredigion, West
  Wales) Dinasdaron (Dinas Darren) Logres
  (Lloegr),), Svardon (Snowdon)
• Escalibor (Caledfwlch, Caliburnus) Guingalet
  (Gwyngaled-horse)

22
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Who exactly were the transmitters of this
  tradition to Continental writers?
• There was of course no one particular source for
  Arthur and the related and unrelated names that
  make up the matière de Bretagne.
• It clearly operated on both the popular and
  learned levels.
• The oral level (and several of the names
  transmitted retain evidence of being garbled in
  that process) took place in informal social
  contacts.
• As a result of intermarriages, stories would
  accompany the entourage of insular gentry.
  Merchants and soldiers as well (folktales).

23
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• In arthurian studies, there has been considerable
  debate about whether it was mainly the Bretons or
  the Welsh who provided the corpus of tales that
  would be adapted by the Anglo-Norman and French
  writers.
• The argument is probably not best served by
  reducing it to such a black and white issue.
• It would be more intelligent to examine in what
  areas the Bretons exerted more influence and
  where the Welsh brought in their specific rich
  fund of narratives.

24
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• There is no real evidence of much written Breton
  in this period, and it might be that the mode of
  transmission here was mainly confined to the
  minstrel class who were commonly found in the
  courts of the period.
• Welsh materials in French texts often seem to
  have written versions as their source. The Welsh
  were not mentioned as being so keen to leave
  Wales and to be associated with the courts of the
  Normans.

25
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• It is worth noting that the Bretons had already
  become a feature of the courts in Late
  Anglo-Saxon England during the 10-11th century
  when many Bretons fled Brittany during
  Scandanavian raids and Norman conquest.
• Breton saints lives are found amongst
  Anglo-Saxon texts.
• This would have probably introduced the Arthurian
  material into the inteleectual circles in
  England rather than from the Welsh who viewed the
  English with suspicion.

26
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The case for mainly Welsh sources can be found in
  essays by Prof. R.M.Jones

27
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• One suggestion mainly by Prof. R.M.Jones suggests
  that very specific stories (unlike the fragments
  that became attached to traditional names) could
  have been transmitted in a culturally highly
  favourable geographic locations. (This concerns
  especially the Three Arthurian Romances).
• One area where the meeting of Welsh and Norman
  culture was most noticeable was that of SE Wales
  and the surrounding region (Glamorgan, Monmouth
  and Archenfield) in the early post-conquest
  period.

28
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• In this milieu such tales as the Three Romances
  could have been narrated either in Welsh or
  Norman-French as the occasion demanded.
• Those who were most appropriate for such activity
  would have been the latimarii, latimarius
  (latimers, lladmeryddion), ie the professional
  interpreters who were very active in the Welsh
  border districts.
• One of the names of these high status translators
  and interpreters has survived namely Bledhericus
  (Bleddri).

29
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• It is necessary to try and distinguish between
  first transmission and subsequent repetition. The
  latter can be regarded as primarily the work of
  minstrels, but it is to be questioned whether
  they were generally responsible for transmitting
  the tales in the first place, because original
  transmission of Celtic story presupposes
  translation and if minstrels were the only
  people responsible for transmission, then it has
  to be assumed that they were very capable
  linguists. (Dr Bullock-Davies).

30
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Where these and probably other texts are
  concerned, this presupposes that the latimers
  (translators) played a key role in the
  transmission proses, at least for the Chrétien de
  Troyes material and probably for the other early
  Grail tales.

31
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Owain (The Countess of the Fountain)
• Peredur Son of Evrawg (The Grail Story)
• Geraint and Enid
• The French equivalents by Chrétien de Troyes
• Yvains
• Perceval Li Gallois
• Erec et Enide

32
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Comparison of the Middle Welsh texts and the
  French texts by Chrétien de Troyes demonstrate a
  close relationship between the materials. The
  stories follow roughly the same pattern, the same
  characters, although some variation in episodes.
• The earlier critical approach was to see Chrétien
  as the basis for the Middle Welsh texts but
  gradually opinion has shifted to suggest a common
  (written) origin for both (almost certainly in
  Norman French, and probably based on Welsh oral
  and written sources).

33
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Chrétiens work has preserved many more of the
  Brythonic legendary and mythical names of those
  already absorbed into the Arthurian cycle.
• He does mention sources (Erec) A tale which
  those who wish to make their living by
  story-telling habitually fragment and corrupt in
  the presence of kings and counts

34
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Regarding Perceval Li Gallois, Chrétien claims
  that he obtained the story (and ultimately this
  is the basis for the Grail storys entry into
  European consciousness) from a book given to him
  by the Conte de Flandres thus Chrétien makes
  (like Geoffrey) no claim to originality.
• Oral material or more probably literary versions
  of these three tales were probably at the
  disposal of both the final Welsh redactors and
  Chrétien himself. Perhaps originally produced by
  one or more of the latimers in Wales (or
  Brittany?).the high status translators.

35
The Three Arthurian Romances

• The impromptu oral narration of the three known
  tales (not always seen as a group in the Welsh
  manuscript tradition) seems a more unlikely basis
  for the final product in both Welsh and French at
  the end of the 12th century.
• The closeness of the order of the events in both
  would seem to reflect retellings of a written
  original.
• Rachel Bromwich however suggests that one of the
  texts The Countess of the Fountain could
  ultimately derive from Breton sources where a
  Welsh ambiance has been adapted.

36
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Much of the material concerning the figure of
  Arthur himself in these three tales cleary comes
  from Geoffrey HRB but probably through Waces
  French verse translation Roman de Brut (presented
  for the first time to Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine
  in 1155).

37
The argument for the Bretons

• Some scholars have preferred to see mainly Breton
  influence in the earliest Arthurian literature of
  Europe.

38
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Gerald of Wales confirms that they could
  communicate with the Welsh and certainly the
  Cornish.
• We have several references during the period of
  the Middle Ages for the interest shown by the
  Bretons in Arthur-the Brythonic hero par
  excellence.
• The question may arise as to the extent of
  Arthurian and Brythonic legendary material in
  Brittany at this date. There may have been a
  considerable amount of cultural traffic between
  Brittany, Cornwall and Wales (religious contacts).

39
The Three Arthurian Romances

• Chrétien mentions the existence of Breton
  story-tellers, there seem to have been poets and
  ministrels of different grades in the 11 and 12th
  centuries (at least) as was found in Wales.
• The Bretons may have been especially noted for
  their musical accompaniment of their stories (or
  lays, lais). A reference is made by Chrétien
  in Erec to Breton minstrels as one of his
  sources.
• Marie de France would seem to have been the poet
  who depended most on the Breton minstrels for her
  Lais in French. (Bisclavret, Le Fresne).
• Bisclavret Bleiz lavaret.

40
The debt to Breton conteurs

• An early work called the Historia Regum Anglorum
  by William Malmesbury, talks briefly about the
  phenomenon of King Arthur, also refers to how the
  Bretons tell many stories about him.
• Gerald of Wales (c1216) also refers to Breton
  storytellers as the source for the island of
  Avalon and Morganis.

41
The debt to Breton conteurs

• The early French texts certainly have a fair
  sprinkling of Breton names
• Erec, Gandeluz, Rinduran, Guerehes, Graillemer,
  Guigamor, Guivret, Yvain (Ivan), perhaps even
  Lancelin (who eventually gave Lancelot).

42
The debt to Breton conteurs

• The fairest conclusion regarding the Breton v
  Welsh influence upon early French literature is
  that probably the Bretons were better known in
  the French court and some of the Anglo-Norman
  centres in Britain.
• Clearly one, such as Marie de France who most
  likely lives in southern England for some time,
  was more conversant with Breton tales.

43
The debt to Breton conteurs

• On the other hand both Chrétien de Troyes (who
  was a great literary artist in his own right) and
  Wace also had direct access to Welsh sources
  either in written or oral form.
• Chrétien at least must have had access to an
  important source which allowed him to compose the
  Three Arthurian Romances, the same source which
  led to Welsh written versions of the same
  material.

44
The debt to Breton conteurs

• The importance of single individuals cannot be
  ruled out. Exceptionally, the name of one Welsh
  storyteller has survived- Bleheris- who is
  mentioned by Gerald of Wales as a fabulator
  famosus, and by Thomas the author of Tristan, and
  the author of the continuation of Perceval who
  described B as having told his stories to the
  Count of Poitiers. He is mentioned also by others
  as an expert on the Grail, Arthur and Merlin.

45
Bleheris

• It seems that he was a story-teller of some
  eminence.
• This demands that Bleheris, a Welsh-speaking
  Welshman must also have been fluent in French.
• Based on the narratives in French which are
  presumably based on Bleheris as a source, we see
  that again the evidence leans towards Breton
  materials rather than a specifically Welsh form.

46
The debt to Breton conteurs

• That some Breton materials were well known in
  Wales as well seems to be borne out by references
  made by Gerald of Wales to Arthurian material.
• He refers to Avalon,Morganis, as well as the
  famous spring of Barenton in the forest of
  Brocéliande.

47
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• Geoffrey of Monmouths work also had a great
  influence, and not only on European writers, but
  also on the Welsh, Bretons and Cornish themselves.

48
The transmission of Arthurian narratives

• The influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth in both
  Cornwall and Wales.
• The newly discovered saints play in Cornish
  called Bewnans Ke with its Arthurian section,
  based on episodes in the HRB.
• The translations of HRB into Welsh in the 12th
  century and its influence on Arthurian lore in
  Wales (Triads, Arthurian Romances).

49
The debt to Breton conteurs

• Certainly the Arthurian tales were not confined
  to Wales.
• There is ample evidence that the Bretons and the
  Cornish possessed their own traditions.

50
A final Celtic Arthurian text

• The Life of St Ke from Cornwall
• In April 2002 the world of Cornish studies was
  astonished and thrilled by the news that a
  manuscript containing a new Middle Cornish text
  had been discovered in Aberystwyth Wales.
• It is now housed in the National Library of Wales
  MS 23,849D

51
The Life of Ke

• This play, the only medieval play to feature
  Arthur, was probably produced at Glasney College
  in Cornwall.
• The present manuscript dates from the early 16th
  century.
• Originally it was thought that the manuscript was
  in fact two plays one on Saint Ke and the other
  on Arthur. It is now believed that the Arthurian
  section is part of the original Life of Ke.

52
The Life of Ke

• The key to understanding the contents of the work
  is provided by a French summary of a lost Latin
  life of Ke given by Albert Le Grand (1637). Here
  the saint is described returning to Brittany, and
  then is sent for by the prelates of Britain
  asking him to intercede between King Arthur and
  his nephew Modred, in an attempt to avert civil
  war.

53
The Life of Ke

• The story here follows Geoffrey of Monmouth, and
  is evidently derived from it directly or
  indirectly.
• However with the arrival of a Saxon army to aid
  Modred, St Ke decides that he can do nothing to
  help and returns again to Brittany, passing
  through Winchester where he persuades Queen
  Guinevere to enter a nunnery.

54
The Life of Ke

• It is quite likely that the Cornish play follows
  the story as summarized by Le Grand.
• In the Cornish play, the section concerning
  Arthur occurs between lines 181-437.

55
Bewnans Ke

• Arthur is described in state, with Duke Cador,
  his squires and bishops, Beduer, Ke (here Kay),
  Hoel, and others. Included are Modred and Gawain.
• The delegates from Rome arrive, but Arthur
  refuses to pay tribute.
• Arthur leaves Modred in charge with Guinevere
• Battle in France (Lucius is killed and sends Ls
  head back to Rome).

56
Bewnans Ke

• Modred and Guinevere together in Arthurs palace
  and a bishop crowns Modred.
• The news is brought to Arthur who takes counsel.
• Modred obtains the help of the Saxons
• Battle between Arthurs and Modreds forces.
• Guinevere in palace.
• Ms breaks off.

57
Cornish forms of Arthurian names

• The fact that the play has specifically Cornish
  forms of several of the Arthurian main characters
  suggests that traditional material, probably oral
  in nature had survived well into the late middle
  ages in that part of Celtic Britain.
• Some examples

58
Cornish forms of names

• Arthor (Arthur)
• Modreth, Modres, Modret (Modred, Mordred)
• Gwynwer (Guinivere cf Gwenhwyfar)
• Mortygernus (Vortigernus)
• Calesvol (Excalibur) cf Caledfwlch.
• Gawen, (gawain)
• Ke (Kay, Key, cf Cei)
• Kyllywyk (Celliwig)
• Kembra (cf CymruWales)