The Role of Intelligence Tests in Qualifying Students as Mentally Retarded: Are Intelligence Tests B

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The Role of Intelligence Tests in Qualifying
Students as Mentally Retarded Are Intelligence
Tests Biased?

• Dr. Amelia Jurlando
• Fredericksburg City Public Schools
• Fredericksburg, Virginia
• ajurlando_at_cityschools.com

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Agenda

• Why focus on the Mental Retardation category?
• What is intelligence?
• How is intelligence measured?
• How do different groups differ on intelligence
  tests?
• What impacts scores on intelligence tests?
• How are intelligence tests used in Special
  Education?
• What is test bias?
• What does current literature and research say
  about this issue?
• What do we do?

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Why focus on the Mental Retardation category?
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Why focus on the Mental Retardation category?

• African-American students are 2.9 times more
  likely than Caucasian students to be labeled as
  mentally retarded
• (NABSE ILIAD Project, 2002)
• African-American individuals comprise almost 15
  of the total population but comprise an average
  of 34 of students identified as mentally
  retarded
• (NABSE ILIAD Project, 2002)
• Measuring intelligence is a required part of
  eligibility for Mental Retardation

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What is intelligence?
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We do not know.

• (Sternberg, Grigorenko, and Kidd, 2005)

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Many theories of intelligence

• Horn and Cattells Fluid-Crystallized Theory of
  intelligence
• Carrolls three-stratum theory of cognitive
  abilities
• Psychometric view of intelligence

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Horn and Cattells Fluid-Crystallized Theory of
intelligence

• Intelligence is comprised of nine factors
• Fluid Reasoning (Gf)
• Crystallized intelligence (Gc)
• Visual Processing (Gv)
• Auditory Processing (Ga)
• Processing Speed (Gs)
• Short-Term Memory (Gsm)
• Long-Term Retrieval (Glr)
• Quantitative Knowledge (Gq)
• Correct Decision Speed (CDS)

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Carrolls three-stratum theory of cognitive
abilities

• Hierarchy consisting of three levels
• the highest level at the apex is the global
  measure of intellectual functioning
• the second level has several broad abilities that
  is similar to fluid and crystallized factors
• the third level includes specific and narrowly
  defined abilities

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Psychometric view of intelligence

• Intelligence is what is measured by an
  intelligence test

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How is intelligence measured?
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Interpreting and understanding intelligence test
scores

• Sample description
• Standard scores
• Mean
• Standard Deviation
• Variety of scores that provide information
• Standard scores
• Percentile rank
• Confidence intervals
• Common Features

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Sample description

• Standard score standard scores are a
  representation of performance in relation to the
  normative group and allow for making comparisons
• Mean average
• Standard deviation a measure of the width of the
  sample distribution

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Standard scores

• 130 and above Very Superior
• 120-129 Superior
• 110-119 High Average
• 90-109 Average
• 80-89 Low Average
• 70-79 Borderline
• 69 and below Impaired (Mentally Retarded range)

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Percentile rank

• Percentile rank is a number that indicates the
  percentage of scores equal to or less than the
  given score
• 50th percentile is the mean

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Confidence Interval

• A range of values that indicates where the true
  score is likely to fall
• Often expressed in 90 or 95

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Common cognitive assessment measures

• Wechsler intelligence Scale for Children- Fourth
  Edition (WISC-IV)
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales- Fifth Edition
  (SB5)
• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children- Second
  Edition (KABC-2)
• Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities
  (WJ-III)
• Differential Abilities Scale (DAS)
• Naglieri Test of Nonverbal intelligence
• Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal intelligence
  (C-TONI)

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Common Features

• Global measure of intelligence
• Index scores for various areas of intelligence
• Subtests that are comprised of items of
  increasing difficulty

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WISC-IV
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WISC-IV
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How do ethnic groups differ on intelligence tests?
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WISC-III Normative Sample - (Kush, Watkins,
Ward, Ward, Canivez, Worrell, 2001)
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WISC-III
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Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second
Edition (KABC-2) - AGS Publishing
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Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second
Edition (KABC-2)
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Naglieri Test of Nonverbal Intelligence

• - (Naglieri Ronning, 2000)

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Naglieri Test of Nonverbal Intelligence
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What impacts scores on intelligence tests?
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What are intelligence tests measuring?

• Genotype intellectual capacity from the
  interaction between biological qualities and
  environmental opportunities
• Phenotype the actual observable behaviors and
  traits that are demonstrated (for example
  memory, judgment, reasoning, and language skills)
• intelligence measured by tests performance on a
  standardized test that measures intellectual
  abilities

Phenotype
Intelligence test
(Oakland, 1995)
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Environmental impact on IQ scores

• Economic status
• prenatal development, childhood nutrition,
  healthcare, exposure to experiences, parental
  level of education, family structure
• when SES is controlled, group differences in IQ
  scores decrease (Esters, Ittenach, Han, 1997)
• Cultural variables
• such as modes of communication
• may influence problem-solving strategies and
  familiarity with test formats (Esters, Ittenach,
  Han, 1997)

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Biological impact on IQ scores

• Genetics
• Cannot be considered genetics since there is no
  identifiable gene or set of genes responsible for
  intelligence (Sternberg, Grigorenko, and Kidd,
  2005)
• Race is more of a social construct than a
  biological construct (Sternberg, Grigorenko, and
  Kidd, 2005)
• Heritability
• Heritability is a relationship between genetic
  variation and the impact of environmental factors
  
• Statistically can only be used to determine
  relationships within the population being
  studied, not between groups (geographic locations
  and socioeconomic status are several examples)
• Heritability indicates a correlation between
  biological makeup and a trait rather than a
  causal relationship
• Research generally indicates that less than half
  of the variability in IQ scores are related to
  heritability
• Conclusion drawn from heritability studies in the
  past have been wrong!

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Other factors that affect IQ scores

• Motivation
• Testing Situation
• Rapport with examiner
• Sustained effort
• Time

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How are intelligence tests used in Special
Education?
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Factors that influence Special Education services

• Family/Community
• School/classroom/teacher
• Referral for testing
• May include an intelligence test
• Eligibility determination
• Placement and services

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Special Education Categories Affected by IQ Tests

• Mental Retardation
• Learning Disability
• Speech and Language Impairment
• Developmental Delay

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Criteria for Mental Retardation (IDEA)

• Impaired cognitive (intelligence) scores
• Thinking and reasoning
• Verbal and nonverbal
• Impaired adaptive behavior scores
• Communication skills
• Daily living skills
• Socialization skills

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Summary

• There is no single, agreed-upon definition of
  intelligence
• There are many different intelligence tests that
  measure different traits (and are not fully
  representative of intelligence)
• Intelligence tests differ in the amount of
  variance between normative groups
• Many factors affect performance on intelligence
  tests
• Intelligence tests are one piece of a complex
  process of qualifying and serving Mentally
  Retarded students

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What does current literature and research say
about this issue?
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Arguments against intelligence tests

• The combined influence of race, culture, and
  social class is so profound and so interwoven
  that current psychometric models are far too
  simplistic to ameliorate adequately all such
  influences (Esters, Ittenach, Han, 1997).
• In our society, ethnic status and social
  variables that might correlate with intelligence
  are highly confounded. Therefore, the currently
  available data do not discriminate between
  genetic and nongenetic explanations (Kush,
  Watkins, Ward, Ward, Canivez, Worrell, 2001)
• Intelligence tests provide little information for
  meaningful education interventions (Esters, Han,
  Ittenbach, 1997)
• They are inappropriate to use with culturally
  diverse groups (Esters, Ittenach, Han, 1997)
• Item content is biased
• Normative groups are not representative of the
  population
• Language and racial differences between examiner
  and examinee impact performance
• IQ scores result in different educational
  experiences

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Arguments in support of intelligence tests

• Research indicates that there is no bias within
  the test items, that sampling procedures are
  appropriate, and there is no effect of examiner
  race on test scores (Esters, Ittenach, Han,
  1997)
• Testing is used on children identified as
  struggling, so identifies those already
  identified (resulting in the larger number of
  minority students in Special Education because
  those are the children struggling academically)
• Research indicates that IQ scores are as strong
  predictors for minority school achievement as for
  non-minority students
• Research indicates that the underlying traits
  measured by intelligence tests are the same for
  Caucasian students as for African-American
  students (Kush, Watkins, Ward, Ward, Canivez,
  Worrell, 2001)

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What is bias?

• An unfair act or policy as a result of prejudice

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Adverse Impact

• Term used by the Equal Employment Opportunity
  Commission (EEOC) to describe when a selection
  procedure produces a substantially different rate
  of selection for difference groups (Special
  Education categories)
• Caused by
• Differential validity when a selection procedure
  is a valid predictor of job performance for one
  group and is less valid for another group (mental
  retardation)
• Unfairness when one group consistently scores
  lower than another group on a test but both
  groups perform equally well on an outcome task
  (school performance)

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Are intelligence Tests Biased?

• Perhaps a better question is whether or not
  intelligence tests produce an adverse impact
• They produce a differential selection rate for
  Special Education and they have not been proven
  to accurately identify mental retardation in both
  groups (circular definition)
• The variance in scores among the tests indicates
  that (at least to some extent) the differences in
  scores are the result of the tests themselves and
  not necessarily the underlying intellectual
  ability being measured

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Now what?
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Test Options

• Same old, same old
• Use the same tests but with more cautious
  interpretation
• Optimize the testing situation with a
  multi-method assessment approach
• Use the same tests but cater them to assess only
  those cognitive skills that are statistically
  linked to the referral issue
• Use tests with more similar norms between groups

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What else can be done?

• Ensure that adaptive functioning is assessed
• Conduct re-evaluations
• Remember the big picture
• Address each level of the Special Education
  process (family/community, school/teacher/classroo
  m, testing, eligibility determination, placement
  and services)
• Consider cultural and language issues when
  administering and scoring a test
• Interpret data appropriately and flexibly
• general principles of test interpretation may not
  be applicable to children of all cultural groups
• Consult, consult, consult
• Use accountability

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Questions and Comments
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Bibliography

• Esters, I.G., Ittenbach, R.F., Han, K. (1997).
  Todays IQ Tests Are They Really Better Than
  Their Historical Predecessors? School Psychology
  Review, 26(2), 211-224.
• Frisby, C.L. (1995). When Facts and Orthodoxy
  Collide The Bell Curve and the Robustness
  Criterion. School Psychology Review, 24 (1),
  12-19.
• Hunt, E. (1995) The Role of intelligence in
  Modern Society. American Scientist, July/August,
  356-368.
• McGrew, K.S., Flanagan, D.P., Keith, T.Z.,
  Vanderwood, M. (1997). Beyond g The Impact of
  Gf-Gc Specific Cognitive Abilities Research on
  the Future Use and Interpretation of intelligence
  Tests in the Schools. School Psychology Review,
  26(2), 189-210.

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Bibliography

• Naglieri, J. A., Ronning, M. E. (2000).
  Comparison of White, African-American, Hispanic,
  and Asian Children on the Naglieri Nonverbal
  Ability Test. Psychological Assessment, 12,
  328-334.
• National Alliance of Black School Educators
  (NABSE), ILIAD Project. (2002). Addressing
  Over-Representation of African American Students
  in Special Education The Prereferral
  Intervention Process- An Administrators Guide.
  Arlington, VA Council for Exceptional Children,
  and Washington, DC National Alliance of Black
  School Educators.

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Bibliography

• Oakland, T. (1995). The Bell Curve Some
  Implications for the Discipline of School
  Psychology and the Practices of School
  Psychology. School Psychology Review, 24 (1),
  20-26.
• Sternberg, R.J. (2004). Culture and intelligence.
  American Psychologist, 59(5), 325-338.
• Sternberg, R.J., Grigorenko, E.L., Kidd, K.K.
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