Utilitarianism

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Utilitarianism

• An Introduction to the Moral Theories of Jeremy
  Bentham and John Stuart Mill

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Ethical Judgments

• Ethical philosophy differs from the sciences
  because it is normative or prescriptive, rather
  than descriptive.
• In other words, ethics tell us how we ought to
  act or what we should do, while the sciences are
  more likely to observe how things are in nature
  or society.

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Making Ethical Judgments
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Making Ethical Judgments in Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism says that the Result or the
  Consequence of an Act is the real measure of
  whether it is good or bad.
• This theory emphasizes Ends over Means.
• Theories, like this one, that emphasize the
  results or consequences are called teleological
  or consequentialist.

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Benthams Formulation of Utilitarianism

• Man is under two great masters, pain and
  pleasure.
• The great good that we should seek is happiness.
  (a hedonistic perspective)
• Those actions whose results increase happiness or
  diminish pain are good. They have utility.

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Jeremy Benthams Hedonistic Calculus

• In determining the quantity of happiness that
  might be produced by an action, we evaluate the
  possible consequences by applying several values
• Intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty,
  propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity, and
  extent.

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Four Theses of Utilitarianism

• Consequentialism The rightness of actions is
  determined solely by their consequences.
• Hedonism Utility is the degree to which an act
  produces pleasure. Hedonism is the thesis that
  pleasure or happiness is the good that we seek
  and that we should seek.
• Maximalism A right action produces the greatest
  good consequences and the least bad.
• Universalism The consequences to be considered
  are those of everyone affected, and everyone
  equally.

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Two Formulations of Utilitarian Theory

• Greatest Happiness We ought to do that which
  produces the greatest happiness and least pain
  for the greatest number of people.

• Principle of Utility The best action is that
  which produces the greatest happiness and/or
  reduces pain.

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Two Types of Utilitarianism

• Rule An action is right if and only if it
  conforms to a set of rules the general acceptance
  of which would produce the greatest balance of
  pleasure over pain for the greatest number.
  (John Stuart Mill)

• Act An Action is right if and only if it
  produces the greatest balance of pleasure over
  pain for the greatest number. (Jeremy Bentham)

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Application of Utilitarian Theory

• A) You attempt to help an elderly man across the
  street. He gets across safely.
• Conclusion the Act was a good act.

• B) You attempt to help an elderly man across the
  street. You stumble as you go, he is knocked into
  the path of a car, and is hurt.
• Conclusion The Act was a bad act.

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Application of Utilitarian Theory

• If you can use eighty soldiers as a decoy in war,
  and thereby attack an enemy force and kill
  several hundred enemy soldiers, that is a morally
  good choice even though the eighty might be lost.
• If lying or stealing will actually bring about
  more happiness and/or reduce pain, Act
  Utilitarianism says we should lie and steal in
  those cases.

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Application of Utilitarian TheoryActual Cases

• The decision at Coventry during WWII.
• The decision was made not to inform the town that
  they would be bombed.
• The Ford Pinto case A defective vehicle would
  sometimes explode when hit.
• The model was not recalled and repaired by Ford
  because they felt it was cheaper to pay the
  liability suits than to recall and repair all the
  defective cars.

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Criticisms of Benthams theory

• Benthams theory could mean that if 10 people
  would be happy watching a man being eaten by wild
  dogs, it would be a morally good thing for the 10
  men to kidnap someone (especially someone whose
  death would not cause grief to many others) and
  throw the man into a cage of wild, hungry dogs.

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John Stuart Mills Adjustments to Utilitarianism

• Mill argues that we must consider the quality of
  the happiness, not merely the quantity.
• For example, some might find happiness with a
  pitcher of beer and a pizza. Others may find
  happiness watching a fine Shakespearean play. The
  quality of happiness is greater with the latter.

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Mills Quality Arguments

• It is better to be a human being dissatisfied
  than a pig satisfied better to be Socrates
  dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the
  fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it
  is because they only know their own side of the
  question. The other party to the comparison
  knows both sides.

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Mills Quality Arguments

• As between his own happiness and that of others,
  utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly
  impartial as a disinterested and benevolent
  spectator. In the golden rule of Jesus of
  Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the
  ethics of utility. To do as you would be done
  by, and to love your neighbor as yourself,
  constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian
  morality.

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Must I Always Ask What Will Bring the Greatest
Happiness, Even in Choosing a Mate?

• Mills Answer The great majority of good
  actions are intended, not for the benefit of the
  world, but for that of individuals, of which the
  good of the world is made up and the thoughts of
  the most virtuous man need not on these occasions
  travel beyond the particular persons concerned .
  . . .

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Criticisms of Utilitarianism

• If I am to bring the greatest happiness to the
  greatest number, not putting my own happiness
  above others, that may lead to a dilemma. I live
  in a neighborhood where 83 of my neighbors use
  drugs. I could make them most happy by helping
  supply them with cheap drugs, but I feel
  uncomfortable doing that. What should a
  utilitarian do?

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Criticisms of Utilitarianism

• Bernard Williams criticizes the implied doctrine
  of negative responsibility in Utilitarianism.
  For example, a thug breaks into my home and holds
  six people hostage, telling us he will kill all
  of us. However, the thug says, if you will
  kill two of your family, I will let you and the
  other three live.
• With Utilitarianism, the good thing to do is to
  kill two members of my family.

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Criticisms of Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism plays fast and loose with Gods
  commandments. If lying, stealing, or killing
  could lead to an increase of happiness for the
  greatest number, we are told we should lie, steal
  or kill. Isnt that a rejection of Gods
  commands?
• Mills answer Have some trust in existing rules
  the experience of mankind must count for a great
  deal.

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Mills Answer to the Godless Theory Criticism

• What is the nature of God?
• Does God make arbitrary rules just to see if we
  will obey?
• Does God make rules that He knows will lead to
  our happiness?
• If the latter statement is true, doesnt it make
  sense God would want us to use our God-given
  reason to look at the situation and the rule that
  is generally applied?

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Mills Answer to the Godless Theory Criticism

• If it be a true belief that God desires, above
  all things, the happiness of his creatures, and
  that this was his purpose in their creation,
  utility is not a godless doctrine, but more
  profoundly religious than any other. . . .
  .whatever God has thought fit to reveal on the
  subject of morals must fulfill the requirements
  of utility in a supreme degree.

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Another Criticism of Utilitarianism

• If one must decide the probable outcome of an act
  to know if it is good or bad, how can children
  learn the right thing, since they know little of
  what consequences might arise from their actions?
• Mills answer It is wrong to suppose that
  mankind . . . would remain without any agreement
  as to what is useful, and would take no measures
  for having their notions of the subject taught to
  the young, and enforced by law and opinion.

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Mills Rule Utilitarianism

• . . . Mankind must by this time have acquired
  positive beliefs as to the effects of some
  actions on their happiness and the beliefs which
  have thus come down are the rules of morality for
  the multitude, and for the philosopher until he
  has succeeded in finding better.
• Mill concludes, however, that we should always
  seek improvements.

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Rights and Utilitarianism

• Many philosophers hold that we have certain
  rights, either from God, nature, or from a social
  contract
• Can the idea of rights be made compatible with
  Utilitarianism?
• If ignoring rights brings about more happiness to
  the greatest number, should we ignore so-called
  rights?
• Mills rule-based view in his book, On Liberty
  having a right to liberty will bring the greatest
  happiness to the greatest number of people over
  time.

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Consequences of Unethical Practices

• Baucus Baucus (2000)
• Singled out 67 companies out of the Fortune 500
  that had at least one illegal act ex
  antitrust, product liabilities, discrimination
• Performance of the convicted firms were compared
  to unconvicted firms (five year after the fraud
  was committed)
• Convicted firms experienced significantly lower
  return on sales (three year lag)
• Multiple convictions are more disastrous
• Unethical activities can affect long term
  performance