Lets begin by looking at some key definitions:

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Lets begin by looking at some key definitions:

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Title: Lets begin by looking at some key definitions:

1
Social Influence

Lets begin by looking at some key definitions-
Social psychology is an attempt to understand
explain how the thoughts, feelings behaviours
of individuals are influenced by the actual,
imagined or implied presence of others
(Allport, 1985)

Social influence refers to the way a persons
thoughts or behaviours are changed as a result of
either active or passive influence from other
people.
According to Baron Byrne (2000), Social
Influence is
efforts by one or more individuals to change
the attitudes, beliefs, perceptions or behaviours
of one or more others

A norm is an unwritten rule about how to behave
in a social group/situation that members of the
group accept as correct
Add this definition to your summary diagram

A Social norm (Group norm / Cultural norm) is a
way of thinking or behaving that is considered
appropriate and proper within a particular
society (group/culture), and that most members of
that society (group/culture) adhere to.
Social norms, therefore differ from one society
to another.
Group norms, therefore differ from one group to
another.
Cultural norms, therefore differ from one culture
to another.

Some examples are-

Empirical Studies that demonstrated the
development of norms.
Jenness (1932) Beans in a jar study
Aim to show that group norms are formed and
that they influence individual behaviour.
Method Jar of beans, individual estimates,
group estimate and then individual estimate
again.
Results Individuals made shift towards the
group estimate on their second estimate.

Conclusion Individuals are influenced by the
group norm.
Evaluation
First empirical study of conformity.
Very simple study

Muzafer Sherif (1935)
He used a visual illusion called the AUTOKINETIC
EFFECT.
A visual illusion in which a stationary spot
of light appears to move when shown in a
completely dark room.
Aim To demonstrate the development of a group
norm and its influence on individual behaviour.

Method
He told participants that he was going to move
the spot of light and asked them to estimate how
far he had moved it. Participants were tested
individually, Participants were then tested in
small groups and tested again individually
Findings
a) Participants tested individually - estimates
varied between participants to a large degree.

b) Participants tested in small groups (usually
three) - the estimates of each group member
gradually got closer and closer until a group
norm was established.(note there was no
discussion among group members about the
estimate).
c) When tested again individually the
participants estimates remained close to the
group norm rather than their original estimates.
(But would claim not to have been influenced by
the group).

Rohrer et al (1954) used Sherifs method and
found that when tested 1 year later participants
still gave the group norm estimates rather than
reverting to their own individual answers.
This shows that the influential power of the
group can still exist long after the group ceases
to exist.

What does these studies tell us?
According to Brown (19 85) , in western cultures
at least, to be in agreement with others
satisfies an important psychological need,
especially in situations where people are
uncertain or the situation is ambiguous.
Through a social comparison process a common
social reality is established and validated. (But
people are relatively unaware of being influenced
by others).

Add a one sentence summary of each of these two
studies to your diagram making a link with the
definition of norm
Jeness beans in the jar
Sherif- Autokinetic effect.

CONFORMITY
CONFORMITY IS .......
yielding to group pressures, Crutchfield
(1962)
a change in a persons behaviour or
opinion as a result of real or imagined pressure
from a person or group of people, Aronson (1976)

Conformity - The tendency to change what we do
(behaviour) or think and say (attitudes) in
response to the influence of others or social
pressure. This pressure can be real or
imagined.
(AS level textbook pg 186)
Write this definition on your summary diagram

16
Add red writing to your summary diagram allow
enough room to also add on the research study
that demonstrates each type of conformity.

Types of CONFORMITY (Kelman,1958)
COMPLIANCE
Supporting the group by appearing to agree
(going along with other people), but not in fact
changing your views or opinions.
2. INTERNALISATION
The individual agrees with the group both
publicly and privately, making the groups
beliefs, values, attitude and behaviour their
own.

17
Add red writing to your summary diagram allow
enough room to also add on the research study
that demonstrates each type of conformity.

3. IDENTIFICATION
Establishing a link between an individual and
another person (or group of people) who is
important to the individual. The individual
absorbs characteristics of the person (or group)
into their own
behaviour, although
this may be short lived.

Research Example of COMPLIANCE
Solomon Asch (1951)
(known as The Asch Paradigm)
Aim
He wanted to look at the effect of MAJORITY
INFLUENCE on an individual in situations that did
not involve any ambiguity or uncertainty.
(see textbook (pg 188) for definition of
majority influence add it onto your diagram make
a link with Compliance)

Method
In a series of experiments, Asch gave 123 male
participants the simple visual task of matching
one line (drawn on card and called the standard
line or test line) with another line ( one of
three comparison lines drawn on another card A,
B or C).
Participants had to say which line matched the
standard line - A, B or C.
Participants were tested in groups of 7 to 9, one
participant was placed in one group the rest of
the group members were confederates.

The participant was in the last or next to the
last position to give his answer.
Six of the trials were neutral trials
(confederates gave correct answer) and twelve
were critical trials (confederates all gave the
same incorrect answer)
NOTE. In a pilot study Asch checked the task for
ambiguity-
There were 36 control participants (tested
alone) who made only 3 mistakes out of a total of
720 trials, this showed that the task was simple
and the answer was obvious.

A confederate is someone who appears to be a
genuine participant but who is actually part of
the experiment.
In this study the confederate were instructed to
give the same incorrect answer on a certain
number of the trials (know as the critical
trials) and the correct answer on the other
trials (Neutral trials)
The participants were told that the study was an
experiment on visual perception and that the
confederates were other participants like
themselves.

Findings
The average rate of conformity was approx. 32
approx. 25 of subjects showed no conformity at
all.
approx. 75 conformed on at least one trial
approx. 5 conformed on all of the critical
trials.
Conclusion
People will conform to a majority view even when
it is obvious that the majority is incorrect.

When debriefed interviewed, the participants
were aware of being influenced by the group
opinion (knowing that the answer they had given
was not what they privately believed to be the
right answer ) and gave more specific reasons for
conforming, eg. not wanting to upset the
experimenter, not wanting to be different, or
inferior.
What type of conformity is this?
COMPLIANCE

However some participants actually believed the
majority decision was correct, and that perhaps
they were suffering from eye strain or that they
were sitting in a compromising position.
What type of conformity is this?
INTERNALISATION
Many participants experienced a good deal of
stress as a result of the conflicts during the
trials.

Using the textbook (pg 188 189) write a brief
description of the study (method findings) by
Asch onto your summary diagram and draw a linking
line to COMPLIANCE

26
Methodological Issues? (add these headings onto
your diagram linked to Aschs study)

Artificiality lacks ecological validity in
everyday situation could just keep quiet if do
not agree with the group groups created were
strangers, conformity usually takes place in
groups where people have ties with one another in
some way.
Individual differences the 37 conformity rate
covers up the wide range of individual
differences, 75 conformed at least once, 25 not
at all.
Unrepresentative sample. Male, from same small
town in America, paid to take part, 1950s so may
not reflect todays society. Therefore can not
easily generalise findings to the general
population.
Demand characteristics. - Some Ps said that they
did not want to spoil the experiment,
suggesting that they may have worked out the aim
of the research and altered their behaviour
accordingly.
Time consuming and uneconomical One participant
tested at a time
Cause and effect can be established because a
laboratory experiment is used This last one is
a strength !

27
Ethical Issues? (add these headings onto your
diagram linked to Aschs study)

Deception
Lack of Informed Consent
Distress
Would the Ps have felt able to withdraw at any
time?
Was there any way round these issues?
Is the study acceptable given the ethical
problems?

Two Research examples of
INTERNALISATION
These studies look at the internalisation of a
minority viewpoint (the effect of minority
influence) look in the textbook (pg 190) for a
definition of Minority influence and add it to
your diagram make a link with Internalisation

1) Moscovici (1969) the green/blue slide study
Aim to see if a consistent minority can
influence the majority
Method and Findings-
4 Ps and 2 confederates in a group
Shown 36 slides of different shades of blue
Asked to say out loud the colour of the slide
Independent groups design
Condition 1 confederates called all slides
GREEN 8 of the real Ps moved to the minority
view that the slides were green
Condition 2 confederates called 24/36 slides
green and the rest blue only 1.25 of real Ps
moved to the minority view.

Criticism of the study
Lacks ecological validity because
The participants are aware they are being
studied
The task was unlike a real everyday task
So, the second piece of research looks at a more
recent way of trying to study minority influence
by looking at the role of minority influence on
people taking part in jury service. Due to the
ethical issues, real life jurys cant be
studied, therefore research has made use of mock
juries (role play). Clark made use of the plot in
the film 12 Angry Men in his study . . . .

Clark (1998/99)- The 12 Angry Men study
Clark had two aims and carried out two main
studies-
Aim 1 to see if a minority could exert its
influence through the information it presented
and the persuasive nature of its arguments
Aim 2 to see if the minority could influence
the majority through changes in behaviour or
defections (people who change their view and
side with the minority) does seeing people
change their view affect others own beliefs?

Study 1
Participants were - 220 psychology students
(129f/ 91m)
They were asked to play the role of jurors, one
person (a minority) trying to influence the
majority
Materials 4 page booklet with the summary of
the plot of 12 Angry Men and evidence for the
defendants guilt
used rare knife available form local store and he
had bought one there,
been seen by 2 eye witnesses an old man who
heard defendant say I am going to kill you, an
old woman who lived opposite and who identified
the defendant as the murderer.
The counter arguments used by Henry Fonda in the
film (defence) were given to some of the
participants and not to others.

Findings-
The minority juror only led the majority to
change their minds (Guilty to Not guilty) in the
situations where they had been given the counter
evidence.
This shows that the information given by the
minority is important in the minority influence
process.

Study 2
Participants were again psychology students
Materials a 3 page summary of the Jurys
discussion in the film 12 Angry Men, it contained
the 3 main counter arguments provided by the
minority juror
The juror had been able to buy an identical knife
at a local junk shop
The old man would have taken too long to get to
the window of his apartment from where he was
sitting to be able to see and hear the defendant
The old woman wasnt wearing glasses and had poor
eyesight so may not have seen defendant clearly
Participants were told different scenarios about
the number of defectors (who changed their mind
from guilty to not guilty) in the jury, from 1 to
6

Findings-
When asked to give their opinion on a 9 point
scale of whether or not they thought the man was
guilty they were influenced by the number of
defectors they were led to believe were in the
jury-
Fewer than 4 defectors not much influence
Between 4 7 defectors ps more likely to take
not guilty view ie, they were influenced,
BUT, 7 defectors didnt have more influence than
4 a ceiling of influence is reached at 4
defectors.
This shows that a minority can influence the
majority opinion through changing behaviour
defecting to the minority position.
Think how could a minority group put this finding
to good use if they want to change a majority
view?

Evaluation of Clarks studies
A good example of more recent research that
attempts to move away from low ecologically valid
lab. experiments. Therefore higher ecological
validity than earlier social influence research
BUT . .
Only role play implications of decisions not
like real life juries can we generalise to real
life situations?
More ethically acceptable way of studying social
influence no deception little
discomfort/distress.

Now you need to add a brief summary of these two
studies by Clark onto your summary diagram make
a link with Internalisation.

2 Research examples of IDENTIFICATION
1) Philip Zimbardos famous 1971 prison
simulation study.
Role Play
Simulated prison in basement of Stanford Uni.
Psychology building
24 male volunteers carefully selected
Random allocation to role of prisoner or guard
Prisoners arrested at their homes, taken to
prison, deloused, searched, dressed in smock
uniforms, referred to by a number
Guards shift work, uniforms, dark glasses,
trunchon (night stick), told to keep prisoners
under control but dont use violence.

Observations (findings)
Prisoners
First day - ripped off numbers, rebelled,
protested
After a few days of humiliation by the guards
became passive depressed, stress related
symptoms
Guards
Responded to protests with harsh punishments
humiliation, locking in cells, removing blankets,
depriving them of sleep.
Punishments escalated
Study had to be stopped after 6 days becoming
too realistic!! Should have run for 14 days.

The study shows the way people conform to the
role they are given, Identification.
It also shows the power of situational factors to
influence behaviour even to the extent that
ordinary, stable individuals can abuse power and
behave in antisocial ways if the situation
facilitates this.
Evaluation of the study-
Volunteers but they were selected carefully
How realistic was the prison setup?
Distress Deception
Did Ps feel able to withdraw since they were
being paid?
Zimbardo should have called off the study even
earlier.

2) Reicher and Haslam (2002)
Working with the BBC they did a repeat of
Zimbardos study
15 male volunteers selected from 500 applicants
9 prisoners 6 guards
Filmed for TV in purpose built prison in TV
studio
Findings
Guards reluctant to exert authority
Prisoners took charge
Both guards prisoners tried to establish a fair
and equal social system but this failed
a small group of prisoners took power and it was
called off earlier than expected

Reicher and Haslam suggested that tyranny becomes
acceptable when the law and order established by
the group breaks down and groups experience
feeling of powerlessness.
This study didnt show a clear conformity to
social roles (identifcation) as was demonstrated
by Zimbardo
Why not? What are the differences between the two
studies?
R Hs Ps were tougher more streetwise than
Zimbardos
RHs Ps wore microphones and were aware they
were being filmed for TV, Zimbardos were
secretly filmed
30 years difference between the two studies
(different social cultural contexts)

Add to your summary diagram the final section
the two studies of Identification.
Turn over your summary diagram for the next
section

6 Factors Affecting Conformity title in middle
of summary diagram add on the following 6
legs to the diagram
1.The effect of the size of the majority
This was demonstrated by Asch in one of his
variations on his line matching study.
The IV he changed was the number of confederates
in the group(1,2,3,4,8,10,15)
The DV he measured was the of real participants
who changed their answers to that of the
confederates.
He found the following-

1 confederate 1 real participant
3 changed their view to that of the confederates
2 confederates 1 real participant
14 changed their view to that of the
confederates
3 or more confederates 1 real participant
32 changed their view to that of the
confederates
Note -No significant increase in conformity
rates with increase in group size after this, in
fact when 15 confederates conformity rates
slightly lower.
These findings have been replicated by other
researchers, e.g. Stang(1976) suggested that
conformity is at its highest with a majority of
3 5 persons.

This study shows that
people are less likely to conform in a very small
group in the presence of 1 or 2 other people
people are more likely to conform in a slightly
bigger group in the presence of 3 or more other
people, BUT . . . .
As the group gets bigger than 3 or more others
the rate of conformity does not get significantly
bigger.

2. The effect of the presence of a supporter
Demonstrated by Asch in a variation of his line
matching study
The IV he changed was whether or not one of the
confederates gave the correct answer on some of
the trials (supported the real participant) when
the rest of the confederates were giving the
incorrect answer
The DV he measured was the of real participants
who changed their answers to that of the majority
of confederates.
He found the following-

When one confederate agreed with the real
participant rather than the rest of the
confederates
Conformity rates dropped to 5.5
(remember it was 32 when all confederates were
in agreement)
This suggests that if the individual gets even a
small amount of support from another person, if
the unanimity of the majority is broken, then the
individual is less likely to conform to the
majority view.

3. The effect of time and place (the historical
and social setting)
When and where the individual is when faced with
the choice between conforming and independent
behaviour affects the level of conformity.
Asch 1950s America high conformity rates
reflect America at the time.
Perrin Spencer (1981) a replication of Aschs
study using different types of participants to
Asch, they used 3 different samples, the first
one illustrates the effect of time on conformity
rates.

They used Male students in 1981
Conformity was almost non-existence, suggesting
that conformity in 1981 is much lower than 1951
Thus the extent of conformity is affected by the
time in history it is being measured in.

4. The effect of the characteristics of the
people who make up the majority
Perrin Spencer (1981) in their replication of
Aschs study this time using a sample of male
students on probation as the real participants
and their probation officers as the confederates
found
Similar high rates of conformity to those found
by Asch
This suggests that the level of conformity is
affected by the status or power the majority has
over the individual.

Again, Perrin Spencer (1981) in their
replication of Aschs study this time using
unemployed young West Indian males and white
confederates
High conformity rates
suggesting that when the majority is a different
race to the individual conformity increases BUT
note the date once again 1981 racial equality
much less established then compared to now.

5. The effect of place and culture
Smith Bond(1993) looked at all the studies
that had used the Asch paradigm to investigate
conformity in different countries.
They found significant variations in conformity
rates. e.g.
Fiji 58 - the highest
Belgium 14 - the lowest
This suggests that different cultures may
encourage conformity more than others

Collectivist and Individualistic cultures have
different values regarding the individual which
may account for the differences in conformity
rates.
(see page 196)
Smith Bond compared the average conformity
rates of individualistic and collectivist
cultures
25.3 - Individualistic
37.1 - Collectivist
These findings suggest that the values and
characteristics of the culture that an individual
is brought up in may influence the likelihood
that they will conform.

6. The virtual presence of others (chat rooms and
social networking on the internet)
In a comparison of face to face conformity rates
and computer mediated conformity rates in
collectivist and individualistic cultures,
Cinirella and Green(2005) found
Face to face conformity rates were higher in
collectivist cultures
Computer mediated conformity rates were low in
both cultures.
This suggests that when people are unable to see
each other (when the presence of others is not
physical) conformity is less likely.

Why do people conform?
We are going to look at 4 explanations (theories)
of conformity, 2 that consider conformity to
majority influence and 2 that consider conformity
to minority influence.
Dual processing dependency model
Social Identity explanations
Social Impact Theory
Social Influence Model

The Dual Process Dependency Model (normative and
informational social influence)
Deutsch Gerard(1955)
NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE.
When an individual needs to accepted by/approval
from the other members of the group. For example
if you are in a potentially embarrassing
situation of disagreeing with the majority, you
are faced with the conflict between you own views
and those of the group compliance is often the
result of normative influence.

INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE.
When we are in uncertain situations we look to
others for information about how to react. This
often leads to internalisation (change in private
opinion in line with the rest of the group)
demonstrated in the Sherif moving spot of light
study.

59
The difference between Informational Social
Influence and Normative Social Influence

NORMATIVE
Need for acceptance of others
Others have power to reward or punish
Conflict between own and others opinions
COMPLIANCE
Private disagreement but Public agreement

INFORMATIONAL
Need for certainty
Subjective uncertainty
Need for information to reduce uncertainty
Comparison with others
INTERNALISATION
Private Public acceptance

This is known as the dual-processing dependency
theory because it suggests two reasons for
conformity based on our dependency on other
people (we dont want to be rejected by the
group)-
Social approval
Information
The choice to conform is a rational process
where the individual weighs up the information
given to them and their need for approval.

Critics suggest
this theory doesnt acknowledge the importance of
a sense of belonging to a group
Studies show that conformity to group norms can
persist long after the group no longer exists,
suggesting that there are reasons other than fear
of rejection that
The next theory addresses these criticisms

62
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63

Social Identity Explanations
Hogg 2003, Hogg Abrahams, 1988
Social Identity explanations are based on Tajfel
Turners social identity theory -
people define themselves by the social groups
they belong to e.g. male, Afro-Caribbean, rugby
player, dancer
Tajfel Turners 1971 studies (pg 199) showed
that people tend to favour ones own group
(in-group) and discriminate against other groups
(out-group)

Social Identity theory suggests that when people
classify themselves as belonging to a group, they
see
strong similarities between themselves and other
group members as well as
strong differences between themselves and people
in other groups
(the Meta-Contrast Principle).

Conformity to the group norms in order to feel
that we belong to a particular group (because we
have identified ourselves with that group) is
known as referent informational influence.
By identifying with the group and conforming to
the group norms in this way we internalise the
norms and often continue to abide by them when
the group is no longer there.
Once a United supporter always a United
supporter.

Support for the social identity explanations of
conformity-
Hogg Turner, 1987
Ps did task similar to Aschs line matching task
Ps heard the responses of others but gave their
own response in private (no fear of rejection /
disapproval)
IV - Confederates were sometimes peers from the
group the P belonged to and sometimes members of
a group the P did not belong to .
DV conformity of P to the confederates
responses.
Findings- conformed only when confederates were
members of the Ps in-group.

Social Impact Theory
Latane Wolf, 1981
social influence is a series of forces operating
in a social field
The amount of influence on the target is
dependent on
Strength of the source
Immediacy of the source
Number of the source
The source the person/people providing the
influence
The target the person/people who will be
influenced.

Strength of the source-
Importance, power, status of the person/people
providing the influence.
Immediacy of the source -
The distance (psychological, physical, or social)
of the source from the target.
Number of sources-
The number of people providing the influence an
increase in number of people providing the
influence increases the impact of the influence.
However it is a negatively accelerating positive
function. light bulb example.

Support for the Social Impact Theory come from -
Hart, Stasson and Karau, 1999.
Tested two of the factors - the effect of
immediacy and strength.
Ps in groups of 3 2 naïve ps and 1 confederate
Confederate argued for minority position.
Task rate 40 applicants for university places.
Immediacy was manipulated by -
Confederate was 4 or 10 feet away from ps
Strength was manipulated by
Confederate acted as a student (low strength) or
as an expert (high strength)

Findings-
Expert confederate had more influence than
student confederate when they were 10 ft away
(low immediacy)
No difference in amount of impact between the
expert and student confederates when the
confederate was 4 ft away (high immediacy)
This suggests that immediacy (how close the
source is to the target) may be the most
important factor in influencing the target.

Social Influence Model
Tanford penrod (1986)
The number of defectors to the minority view
influences the amount of conformity to the
minority view, more defectors increases the
influence UP TO A POINT there is a ceiling
effect which is reached when there are 3 to 4
defectors.

Now its your turn to do some work !
Turn to page 201 in the textbook and answer
questions 6 - 10

OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY
When a person or group of people follow the
direct commands, orders or missives of authority
(another person or institution)
Much of the time obedience is benign
constructive. For example society demands a
degree of obedience for it to function.
Blind Obedience occurs when a person obeys an
order without thinking about it (the implications
of it, the motives behind it etc.).

Blind Obedience is often dangerous and
destructive. There are several examples of blind
obedience in history. Common to such events is
that people low in hierarchy followed the orders
of their superiors. Why?
It is this question that stimulated much of the
research into obedience.
Three important studies on Obedience were carried
out
Milgram
Hofling
Bickman

Milgram
in the 1960s investigated obedience to
authority in what is probably the most
controversial experiment in psychology.
See your handout textbook for details.

Hofling et al

- examined obedience in a real life social
setting - a hospital.
See your handout textbook for details.
77

Bickman (1974)
to see whether the dress of the person giving the
order influenced the level of obedience.

See your handout textbook for details.
78

An Evaluation of Obedience Research
We are going to look at an Evaluation of
Obedience Research through group work.
You will need to make your own revision notes on
this section based on the textbook and additional
handout you will be given.
I will not be providing notes for this section.
There are three main areas of evaluation
The ethics of the research
The validity of the research
The implications of the findings the obedience
alibi and consequences of a situational
perspective

Why do people Obey?
Situational factors-
Legitimate Authority (person giving the order has
social power within a hierarchy)
we may obey them because we trust them or because
they have the power to punish us.
Demonstrated in Milgrams study Yale Uni. vs
Office block,
Demonstrated in Hoflings study Dr Smith
Demonstrated in Bickmans study Guard uniform

Agency Theory
Milgram suggested that the individual enters
what he called an agentic state when faced with
an order from a legitimate authority figure where
the authority figure takes responsibility for
their order.
Rather than acting as an autonomous individual
(taking responsibility for their own actions) the
individual sees themselves as the agent of the
authority figure.
This move from an autonomous state to the
agentic state is called the agentic shift

Demonstrated in Milgrams study. The participants
in may have entered this agentic state when
told the experimenter took responsibility for the
effect of the shocks on the learner.
Demonstrated in Hoflings study as the nurses saw
themselves as employees of the hospital carrying
out the orders of a doctor , rather than as
individuals.
Agency is the result of socialisation from the
moment we are born we are encouraged to submit to
authority.

Graduated Commitment
Once an initial request/order has been carried
out people find it difficult to then back out
when further orders are given, especially if the
next order is not much bigger than the last. This
is known as the foot-in-the door phenomenon.
There is a gradual change form the acceptable to
the unthinkable.
Demonstrated in Milgrams study each increase
in voltage was small 15v. When do you stop?

Personality factors-
Psychologist Theodore Adorno suggested that
extreme obedience has its roots in early
childhood experiences where personality is
formed.
Adorno (working in America in the 40s 50s)
Studied 2000 students (white middle class) using
Interviews about childhood political views
Projective tests - to see if they were racially
prejudiced
He found a particular personality trait that
resulted from harsh parenting-
the child grows up to be very obedient and
hostile towards others especially those of a
different race (unconscious displacement of
hostility towards their harsh parents onto
others)

He called this type of personality -
The Authoritarian Personality (the type of person
who has extreme respect for people who have power
over them and is very obedient to those who have
power over them. They may be hostile to those of
lower rank).
Adorno developed several tests to measure
different aspects of behaviour attitudes the
F test is a measure of fascism it is an
indication of the extent of The Authoritarian
Personality a person may display (have a go
online if you are interested www.anesi.com/fscale)
.

Milgram and the Authoritarian personality
Milgram interviewed some of his participants
after they had taken part and found that those
who were obedient (went to 450v) scored higher on
tests of authoritarian personality than those who
defied the experimenter and refused to go to the
end of the shock generator.
However, Milgram placed more emphasis on the
situational factors than personality factors in
his explanations of obedience.

In pairs consider the following example
(make notes because you will be writing this up
for homework)
Tom does babysitting to earn money for his
holiday. In one of the families the three
children are very unruly, never doing what he
tells them to do. For example, they run around
instead of sitting down to eat their dinner and
they wont go to bed when he tells them to.
What advice could you give him, based on
psychological research, that might get them to
obey him better? Try to think of two different
suggestions.

Application of the 4 theories of obedience to
real life examples of extreme obedience
e.g.
Nazi Germany (1930s early 40s)
My Lai, Vietnam (1968)
Tiananmen Square (1988)
More recently the genocide in Bosnia, Kosovo and
Rwanda
Several psychologists argue that these theories
alone can not explain such atrocities.

Smith Mackie(2000) and Cardwell(2001) suggest
that other important factors also need to be
considered in our explanations.
Social Identity theory the in-group, out-group
and meta-contrast principle, leads to strong
inter group hostility and conflict often at a
high when these atrocities occurred.

Blaming the victim (self-justification) it
was what they deserved for being . . . . stupid,
taking our jobs, etc
This attitude allows the individual to continue
to carry out their actions and still see
themselves as a decent individual.
Motivational factors (such as personal gain)
individuals have often taken the opportunity to
use their obedience to the authority figure for
their own personal benefit (e.g. plundering
businesses , houses and even the bodies of those
they killed).

In pairs (make notes because you will be writing
this up for homework)
Using what you have learned about the topic of
obedience in psychology try to explain TWO
examples of extreme behaviour
choose one from those mentioned in the textbook
or lesson notes and
one reported in the media from more recent times

Resisting Social Influence
Independent behaviour
when an individual chooses not to be influenced
by group norms.
Disobedience
when a person refuses to carry out the order from
an authority figure
Anti-conformity (Counter-conformity)
- when a person acts in opposition to the rules
or group norms this may still be dependent on
the groups behaviour the individual is still
in a way influenced by what the group is doing.

Resisting Authority (Disobedience)
Milgram felt that obedience could be reduced by-
Educating people about the dangers of blind
obedience
Encouraging them to question authority (the
motives of the authority figure)
Exposing people to the actions of disobedient
(resisting) role models
Remind people that they are responsible for their
own actions warn of agentic state.

The role of situational factors in disobedience
and non-conformity.
A well known study of disobedience was carried
out by Gamson et al 1982. They set up a fictional
public relations firm called Manufacturers Human
Relations Consultants. Participants were
employed to help with the company, collect
opinions on moral standards.
See the handout textbook for details of the
method and results.

Methodological ethical issues with Gamsons
research -
High mundane realism
Low demand characteristics
Cause and effect difficult to establish many
factors may have contributed to the disobedience
shown in the study.
Stress
Informed consent
Deception

Why did the ps demonstrate disobedience in this
study and not in Milgrams, how does it differ
from Milgrams study?
Note the date 1982 much later than Milgrams.
People may have become more aware of (or educated
about) unquestioning obedience in fact one
participant even quoted Milgrams study as a
reason for not obeying.
The participants were in groups rather than
alone, this made it easier for them to support
each other in their disobedience Provides role
models of disobedience.

So why did people disobey in Gamsons study?
(Smith Mackie, 2000)
A group (rather than an individual) who share the
same alternative view to the authority figure can
be used against the authority figure.
Reactance people often react against unjust
attempts to control their behaviour.
Systematic thinking (rather than superficial
thinking) rebellion is more likely when people
have time to think carefully about what they are
being asked to do.

Individual Differences in Independent Behaviour.
1) Different Personality Characteristics
(Are some people naturally more independent than
others?)
Arnsos Authoritarian personality.
Crutchfield(1955) suggested that-
Conformers Non-Conformers
Low self-esteem High self-esteem
Less intelligent More intelligent
High need for social approval More self-confident
Leadership abilities

The way we think is known as Cognitive Style
2) Locus of Control (cognitive style way of
thinking)
Does a persons locus of control affect their
level of independent behaviour?
What is Locus of Control ?

99
Locus of Control

Locus of control is
The belief about what controls the events in our
everyday lives, our successes and failures.
Each person has a locus of control that is
primarily EXTERNAL or INTERNAL.
EXTERNAL the belief that life is controlled by
events/forces outside of the individual.
INTERNAL the belief that life is controlled by
the individual (the self).

100

Rotter (1966) developed a Locus of control
scale based on a questionnaire. The I-E scale
The aim of the scale was to measure the degree of
external or internal locus of control a person
showed.
In the questionnaire you are asked to choose one
of two alternatives from a list of items such
as-

101
Examples of items on Rotters locus of control
questionnaire- (a) In the case of the well
prepared student there is rarely, if ever, such a
thing as an unfair test. (b) Examination
questions are often so unrelated to class-work
that studying is really useless. (a) The
average citizen can have an influence on
government decisions (b) This world is run by a
few people in power, and there is not much the
little guy can do about it.
102
(a) Most people do not realise the extent to
which their lives are controlled by accidental
happenings. (b) There is no such thing as
luck. (a) What happens to me is my own
doing. (b) Sometimes I feel that I do not have
enough control over the direction my life is
taking.
103

You can check out your locus of control score
online

104

Rotters Locus Of Control scale has been used in
many studies to see if locus of control is
related to different aspects of human behaviour
(e.g the effect of stress on the individual). It
has also been used to see if independent
behaviour and conformity are related to locus of
control.
The findings from studies looking at locus of
control and independent behaviour are
contradictory . . . .

105

Williams Warchal (1981) suggested locus of
control is less important to conformity
independent behaviour than assertiveness.
Method -30 students Asch task IE scale
Found -No difference in IE scores between high
low conformers, but high conformers (low
independent behaviour) were less assertive than
low conformers (high independent behaviour).
On the other hand . . .

106

Atgis(1998) suggested that people with a high
external locus of control score are more likely
to conform ( and show less independent behaviour)
than people with a low external locus of control
score.
Method meta-analysis of conformity locus of
control studies
Found high E scores correlated with high
conformity levels average correlation was 0.37
(a significant correlation)

107

Further support for the importance of cognitive
style (way of thinking) in independent behaviour
comes from-
Oliner Oliner (1988)
Interviewed non-Jewish people, 406 who had helped
to protect Jews from the Nazis (independent
behaviour) and 126 who had not helped (conforming
behaviour).
They found that- Helpers showed an internal
locus of control and scored high on measures of
social responsibility

108

Elms Milgram (1974)
Followed up a sample of the participants who had
taken part in Milgrams original obedience
experiments, they interviewed them.
They found- the participants who had disobeyed
the orders to continue to the end of the shock
generator showed an internal locus of control and
scored high on measures of social responsibility
These two studies suggest that locus of control
and social responsibility are both important
factors in an individuals ability to show
independent behaviour.

109

Gender Differences in Locus of Control
Linz Semykenia (2005)- two Russian
psychologists surveyed 2,600 Russian employees
and found in general that
Men internal locus of control need challenge
- no difference in salaries of internals
externals
Women external locus of control need
affiliation( relationships)
- internals earned higher wages than
externals
(NB. Salary was seen as a measure of success
therefore independent behaviour e.g. initative,
dependent on own actions)

110

We have considered the way people may naturally
differ in independent behaviour. Now we ask-
Can Independent behaviour be encouraged or
developed?
Nemeth Chiles (1988) suggest that by exposing
an individual to a model of independent
behaviour (someone who has acted independently
and not conformed), the individual is influenced
to stand firm and resist group pressure.
How did they arrive at this conclusion? See page
220 in the textbook.

111
How science works practical work in the social
psychology topic Dragons Den

Group work - You are going to design one of two
studies and present your design to the Dragons to
see if they will give you the funding you need to
carry out the research.
The research studies-
An experiment to test the presence of a dissenter
on conformity levels
A correlation study to see if locus of control is
related to conformity levels.

112

Using and Abusing Social Psychology
Good use of social influence research findings-
Social Change (changing the status of a group
when a society adopts a new way of thinking or
behaving which then becomes widely accepted as
the norm)
Positive social change improves the groups
status, examples-
Ghandis dissent against the British salt tax in
India eventually led to dramatic positive social
change in India.

113

Suffragette demonstrations womens votes and
position in society
Wilberforce the abolition of slavery
Nelson Mandela South Africa reform
Gay Lesbian movements to reduce
discrimination
All of theses examples involve a minority who
went against societys norms and brought about
positive social change. They increased the status
of the group to which they belonged.

114

Tajfels Social Identity Theory (in-group, out-
group and the meta-contrast principle) can be
used to explain how social change can come about.
If an individuals in-group status is
unsatisfactory and seen by the out-group in a
negative light then the individual has two
choices if they wish to change their social
identity-
Move into the out-group-social mobility
Try to change the status of their
in-group-social action

115

Social mobility the most common strategy in the
west where group boundaries are more permeable
e.g. immigrant workers gaining qualifications and
eventually better jobs they can move up into a
higher status group.

116

2. Social Action trying to improve the group
one belongs to (the in-group). Often this is the
only available strategy or it may be that the
individual doesnt want to leave that group.
This can be achieved in several different ways
including -
Social Creativity
Social Competition

117

Social Creativity a group redefines its
attributes and characteristics in a positive way.
E.g Black is beautiful. The group campaigns to
present its attributes in a more favourable
light than previously seen by the out-group.
Research example - Lemaine (1974)
Teams of French boys at summer camp.
Given materials to build a hut. One team had
inferior materials so were never going to be
able to win they created a beautiful garden
round their hut this allowed them to win in a
different way. They created their own positive
attributes.

118

Social Competition direct competition between
the inferior minority group and the superior
majority group, with the minority group taking
Social Action to challenge the social
conditions than disadvantage them.
Social action - campaign, equal rights, improve
the power, status position of the group. This
may lead to inter group conflict but will also
lead to social change.
Examples- Gay lesbian groups, feminist
groups, disability groups
Think how have these groups brought about
social change and what are those changes?
Think what did we learn about minority group
influence how would it apply to Social
Action?

119

Abuse of social influence research findings-
Social Control manipulation of people to do
what a power wants them to do.
E.G.
Interrogation false confessions
Thought reform, indoctrination (brainwashing)

120

Interrogation false confessions
Based on the finding from conformity studies
(e.g. Asch), that uncertainty in a situation
makes an individual more likely to be influenced
by others
Interviewers create a feeling of uncertainty
regarding the events they are interviewing the
suspect about making the suspect more likely to
conform to the view of the interviewers.

121

Research Example- Kassin Kiechel (1996)

a,n,g,t,h,e,r,y,s,d,m,u,j,p,l,q,z,c,v,k,x,b,
Type the letters as fast as you can on the
keyboard. DO NOT touch the ALT key or the
computer will crash and your important reaction
time data will be lost. Ready, steady, go !
122

BUT . . . as usual in social psychology research

The computer was set to crash after a set time.
No one had actually pressed the ALT key
DECEPTION
OH NO. You must have pressed the ALT key !! All
the data is lost. Youll have to sign this
document to say it was your fault and not mine.
123
31 refused to sign
69 agreed to sign
28 of these were convinced that they had pressed
the ALT key
124
This is what you saw isnt it?
You were doing this werent you?
In a real life pressured police interview, people
may be put in a situation where they eventually
come to accept a version of events that may not
be correct. Mackie (2000)
It was a gun wasnt it ?
This is what you said isnt it?
125

Thought reform, indoctrination (brainwashing)
Thought Reform China (1920s onwards) change
peoples political beliefs
and accept the communist regime.

An amazing read about three generations of women
during the revolution.
The revolutionary colleges were set up in the
1940s to indoctrinate students towards the
communist regime.
126

In 1957 a writer called Lifton wrote about the
three stage process of indoctrination in the
revolutionary colleges.
Stage 1 - Intellectual
Small discussion groups of own views exposure
to views of those who hated the old regime.
Lectures on new ideologies. (exposure to
consistent minority opinion)
Stage 2 Personal and emotional
Pressure to adopt new correct views.
Conformity (compliance) independent behaviour
was punished (humiliation, threats etc)
(majority influence conformity)
Stage 3 Confession (internalisation or
compliance??)
Each student had to write a confession ( an
essay of between 5 25 thousand words)
renouncing the old regime and embracing the new
communist ideologies.
These were read out in the small discussion
groups.

127

Indoctrination and brainwashing
E.G. during the Korean war in the 1950s. Captured
UN soldiers were subjected to brainwashing by the
Chinese.
In the POW camps

UN soldiers Political students No contact
with outside world. Physical survival dependent
upon their embracing communist ideologies.
Guards Tutors
128

After their release at the end of the war very
few soldiers stayed on to live under that regime,
most preferring to go back to a non-communist
regime. The returning soldiers were interviewed
to assess the extent of the brainwashing
individual differences found the most resistant
were those with strong political or religious
views and the bloody-minded.(Brown, 1996)
This suggests that attempts to indoctrinate are
not always successful and people differ in the
extent to which they succumb to it.

129

Examples of questions that may be asked on this
topic-
Explain what is meant buy
social action, (2 marks)
social change, (2 marks)
social mobility, (2 marks)
social control (2 marks)
Outline two strategies that can be used by
minority groups to improve the groups status. (4
marks)
Discuss ways in which social influence research
can be used and abused. (12 marks)

130

Social Influence Unit Summary and Revision
Tasks work in pairs on the following-
Produce a detailed summary diagram of this unit
on A3 paper. To do this use page 185 of the
textbook. The headings in the section content
should be the main headings on your diagram.
Using the textbook pages relevant to each section
decide what points to make under each section on
the diagram.
Go through pages 185 227 and
write out concept cards or a glossary list of
all of the Key Terms.
List all of the research examples that are
mentioned and make a brief note of why they were
mentioned in the text
e.g. Asch investigated conformity line
comparison task factors affecting conformity
ethical issues (deception , protection, informed
consent)
Gamson looked at disobedience
Answer question 2 on page 227

131

The following slide shows the beginning of a good
summary diagram you can add much more onto it
than I have been able to show you.
You can stick several sheets of paper together to
enlarge you diagram as it grows.
Keep your writing small so that you can fit
plenty of detail on it.
Dont just copy huge sections from the book
Try to include the key terms and main research
examples on the diagram

132
Method, findings, conclusion Methodological
Ethical issues (variations of the study e.g.
Asch)
How we conform Everyday example
following fashion Research example Sherifs
Autokinetic effect group norms
Types of conformity Compliance Aschs line
matchingstudy Internalisation Clarks mock jury
study Identification Zimbardos prison study
Factors affecting conformity Size of majority
Asch 3 Importance of time-Asch 1950, Perrin
Spencer 1981 Importance of culture
individualistic vs collectivist Importance of
modern technologies facebook, my space
Research into Obedience Milgrams electric shock
study
Why do people conform? Explaining Majority
Influence- Dual Processing theory Normative
and Informational Social Influence Deutsch
Gerrard Social Identity theory Tajfel. Hogg
conformity
Obedience
Social Influence
Explaining Minority Influence- Social Impact
theory Latane Wolf Social Influence model
Tanford Penrod

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