Transport Systems

1
Transport Systems Immunity

• Chapters 42 43
• Evolution Types
• Main structures (Heart)
• Cardiac cycle
• Pathway of Blood flow
• Artery vs. Vein
• Blood
• Exchange _at_ Capillary level
• Lymphatic system
• Immune Response

2
Introductory Questions 1

• Before any type of circulatory was established,
  how did organisms move substances throughout the
  body as with sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, and
  nematodes
• Define the following Hemolymph, hemocoel,
  hemocyanin, and interstitial fluid.
• What is the difference between an open and closed
  circulatory system?
• List all of the structures that a red blood cells
  will encounter as it circulates throughout the
  body beginning with the Vena cava.
• Give three differences between an artery and a
  vein.

3
Circulation System Evolution

• Simple diffusion substances move from
  environment directly into the cells. (2 3 cells
  thick)
• Gastrovascular cavity (cnidarians, flatworms)
• Open circulatory
• hemolymph (blood interstitial fluid)
• sinuses (spaces surrounding organs) hemocoel
• Closed circulatory blood confined to vessels
• Cardiovascular system
• heart (atria/ventricles)
• blood vessels (arteries, arterioles,
  capillary beds, venules, veins)
• blood (circulatory fluid)

4
Several Types of Internal Transport have evolved
in animals

• In cnidarians and flatworms, the gastrovascular
  cavity functions in both
• digestion
• internal transport

Mouth
Circularcanal
5
Circulation System Evolution
6
Circulation System Evolution

• Fish
• 2-chambered heart
• single circuit of blood flow
• Amphibians
• 3-chambered heart
• 2 circuits of blood flow-
• Circulation is Pulmocutaneous (lungs and skin)
• Some mixing of blood
• Mammals
• 4-chambered heart
• Double circulation
• Complete separation between oxygen-rich and
  oxygen poor blood

7
Circulation System Evolution
8

• Most animals have a separate circulatory system,
  either open or closed

• Open systems
• A heart pumps blood through open-ended vessels
  into spaces between cells

Tubular heart
Pores
Figure 23.2B
9

• Closed systems

• A heart pumps blood through arteries and
  capillary beds
• The blood returns to the heart via veins

Capillary beds
Arteriole
Artery(O2-rich blood)
Venule
Vein
Atrium
Heart
Artery(O2-poor blood)
Ventricle
Gillcapillaries
Figure 23.2C
10
Vertebrate cardiovascular systems reflect
evolution
Gill capillaries

• A fish has a single circuit of blood flow

Heart
Ventricle (V)
Atrium (A)
Systemic capillaries
Figure 23.3A
11
Double circulation

• From right ventricle to lungs via pulmonary
  arteries through semilunar valve (pulmonary
  circulation)
• Capillary beds in lungs to left atrium via
  pulmonary veins
• Left atrium to left ventricle (through
  atrioventricular valve) to aorta
• Aorta to coronary arteries then systemic
  circulation
• Back to heart via two venae cavae (superior and
  inferior) right atrium

12
7
Superiorvena cava
Capillaries of Head and arms
Pulmonaryartery
Pulmonaryartery
Capillariesof right lung
Capillariesof left lung
Aorta
9
6
2
3
3
4
11
Pulmonaryvein
Pulmonaryvein
5
LEFT ATRIUM
1
RIGHT ATRIUM
LEFT VENTRICLE
RIGHT VENTRICLE
10
Aorta
Inferiorvena cava
Capillaries ofabdominal organsand legs
8
Figure 23.4B
13
Pulmonaryartery
Aorta
Pulmonaryartery
Superiorvena cava
LEFTATRIUM
RIGHTATRIUM
Pulmonaryveins
Pulmonaryveins
Semilunarvalve
Semilunarvalve
Atrioventricularvalve
Atrioventricularvalve
Inferiorvena cava
RIGHTVENTRICLE
LEFTVENTRICLE
Figure 23.4A
14
IQ 2
Pulmonaryartery
11. vessel
Aorta
Pulmonaryartery
10. vessel
Superiorvena cava
1. vessel
LEFTATRIUM
RIGHTATRIUM
2. chamber
Pulmonaryveins
Pulmonaryveins
9. vessels
Semilunarvalve
3. valve
Semilunarvalve
8. valve
Atrioventricularvalve
Atrioventricularvalve
7. valve
Inferiorvena cava
4. vessel
RIGHTVENTRICLE
LEFTVENTRICLE
5. chamber
6. chamber
Figure 23.4A
15
Internal Structure of the Heart
16
Valves within the Heart
17
What is a heart attack?

• A heart attack is damage that occurs when a
  coronary feeding the heart is blocked

Aorta
Rightcoronaryartery
Leftcoronaryartery
Blockage
Dead muscle tissue
Figure 23.8A
18
Video A Heart Attack Write 10 statements
19
The Thoracic Cavity
20
RBC Pathway through the Circulatory System

• Blood from Systemic Circuit
• ?
• Vena cava (inferior superior)
• ?
• Right atrium
• ? (Tricuspid valve-AV valve)
• Right ventricle
• ? (Pulmonary semilunar valve)
• Pulmonary circuit Lungs
• (P. arteries?? Lungs?P. veins)
• ?
• Left atrium
• ? (Bicuspid Mitral valve)
• Left Ventricle
• ? (Aortic semilunar valve)
• Aorta
• (arch, coronary, carotid, abdominal, renal,
  mesenteric, iliac arteries)

21
Posterior view of the Heart
22
Facts about the Circulatory System

• Blood volume in the heart per contraction 70
  ml
• (Stroke volume)
• Total blood volume in a human 5 Liters
• (1.32 Gal)
  
• Normal Beats per minute (BPM) 72 Bpm
• Normal Blood pressure 120/80 mm Hg
• Starlings Law when more blood is delivered to
  the heart, the heart stretches more and contracts
  with greater force which pumps more blood into
  arteries.

23
Cardiac Output

• The volume of blood pumped out by the left
  ventricle
• Determined by
• (Stroke volume) x (Heart rate)
• Ex. 70 ml (per beat) x 72
  BPM 5040 ml/min
• Approx. 5 Liters per minute

24
The Heart Contracts and Relaxes Rhythmically
Heart isrelaxed.AV valvesare open.
1

• Diastole
• Blood flows from the veins into the heart chambers

2
Atriacontract.

• Systole
• The atria briefly contract and fill the
  ventricles with blood
• Then the ventricles contract and propel blood out

SYSTOLE
0.1 sec
3
Ventriclescontract.Semilunarvalvesare open.
0.3 sec
0.4 sec
DIASTOLE
Figure 23.6
25
The Heartbeat

• Sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) sets rate
  and timing of cardiac contraction by generating
  electrical signals
• Atrioventricular (AV) node relay point (0.1
  second delay) spreading impulse to walls of
  ventricles
• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

26
The Structure of blood vessels fits their
Functions

• A single layer of epithelial cells forms
  capillary walls
• Arteries and veins have smooth muscle and
  connective tissue
• Valves in veins prevent the backflow of blood

27
Blood Vessel Structural Differences

• Capillaries
• endothelium basement
• membrane
• Arteries
• thick connective tissue thick smooth
  muscle endothelium basement membrane
• Veins thin connective tissue thin smooth
  muscle endothelium basement membrane

28
Cardiovascular disease

• Cardiovascular disease (gt50 of all deaths)
• Heart attack- death of cardiac tissue due to
  coronary blockage
• Stroke- death of nervous tissue in brain due to
  arterial blockage
• Atherosclerosis arterial plaques deposits
• Arteriosclerosis plaque hardening by calcium
  deposits
• Hypertension high blood pressure
• Hypercholesterolemia LDL, HDL

29
The circulatory system associates Intimately with
all body tissues

• Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels
• They form an intricate network among the tissue
  cells

Capillary
Redbloodcell
Figure 23.1A
30
Introductory Questions 1

• Before any type of circulatory was established,
  how did organisms move substances throughout the
  body as with sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, and
  nematodes
• Define the following Hemolymph, hemocoel,
  hemocyanin, and interstitial fluid.
• What is the difference between an open and closed
  circulatory system?
• List all of the structures that a red blood cells
  will encounter as it circulates throughout the
  body beginning with the Vena cava.
• Give three differences between an artery and a
  vein.

31
Blood Exerts Pressure on Vessel Walls

• Blood pressure depends on
• Cardiac output
• Blood volume
• Resistance of vessels

32

• Pressure is highest in the arteries

Systolicpressure
Diastolicpressure

• It drops to zero by the time the blood reaches
  the veins

Relative sizes andnumbersof blood vessels
Figure 23.9A
33
Connection Measuring Blood Pressure can Reveal
Cardiovascular Problems

• Blood pressure is measured as systolic and
  diastolic pressures

Blood pressure120 systolic80 diastolic(to be
measured)
Pressurein cuffbelow120
Pressurein cuffabove120
Pressurein cuffbelow 80
Rubber cuffinflated with air
Soundsaudible instethoscope
Soundsstop
Arteryclosed
Artery
2
3
4
1
Figure 23.10
34

• Hypertension is persistent systolic pressure
  higher than 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic pressure
  higher than 90 mm Hg

• It is a serious cardiovascular problem

35

• Three factors keep blood moving back to the heart

• muscle contractions
• breathing
• one-way valves

Direction ofblood flowin vein
Valve (closed)
Valve (open)
Figure 23.9B
Skeletal muscle
36
Smooth Muscle Controls the Distribution of Blood

• Muscular constriction of arterioles and
  precapillary sphincters controls the flow through
  capillaries

Precapillary sphincters
Thoroughfarechannel
Thoroughfarechannel
Venule
Arteriole
Venule
Arteriole
Capillaries
Sphincters contracted
2
1
Sphincters relaxed
37
Introductory Questions 3 (See chapters 42 43)

• 1) In the cardiac cycle how is systole different
  from diastole?
• 2) Where is the SA and AV node located? What do
  these structures do?
• Name three factors that can affect your blood
  pressure.
• Blood is composed of a variety of things. Make a
  list of cellular and non-cellular substances
  present in blood.
• Briefly explain how blood clots. (pg. 882) What
  proteins and cell parts are required for blood to
  clot?
• What forces are involved in the exchange of gases
  and solutes at the capillary level? (pg. 879)
• What areas of the body do we find a high number
  of lymph nodes?(pg. 901)
• How are B cells different from T cells?

38
Review of Blood Pressure

• Key factors that effect BP (CO, BV, R)
• Regulated by a hormone called Renin
• Renin released by the kidneys
• Causes other proteins to increase in
  concentration and constrics the vessels
• -Angiotension
• -Aldosterone (hormone released by adrenal glands)

39
Pg. 880
Withdrawblood
Centrifuge
Place in tube
PLASMA 55
CONSTITUENT
MAJOR FUNCTIONS
CELLULAR ELEMENTS 45
Solvent forcarrying othersubstances
CELL TYPE
NUMBER(per mm3 of blood)
FUNCTIONS
Water
Erythrocytes(red blood cells)
Salts
56 million
Transport ofoxygen (and carbon dioxide)
Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Chloride Bicarb
onate
Osmotic balance,pH buffering, andregulation
ofmembranepermeability
Leukocytes(white blood cells)
Defense andimmunity
5,00010,000
Plasma proteins
Albumin Fibrinogen Immunoglobins(antibodies)
Osmotic balance,pH buffering Clotting Immunity
Lymphocyte
Basophil
Eosinophil
Substances transported by blood
Monocyte
Nutrients (e.g., glucose, fatty acids,
vitamins) Waste products of metabolism Respiratory
gases (O2 and CO2) Hormones
Neutrophil
Platelets
250,000400,000
Blood clotting
Figure 23.13
40
Red blood cells transport oxygen

• -Hemoglobin transport of O2
• -Red blood cells contain hemoglobin (250-300
  million)
• -RBC count
• 4.2 6.2 million cells per mm3. (adult males
  females)
• -Average Lifespan 120 days
• -33 of RBC volume is hemoglobin
• -2.4 million are destroyed per second and are
  replaced in the bone marrow
• -No nucleus or mitochondria

Figure 23.14
41
White blood cells help defend the body

• White blood cells function both inside and
  outside the circulatory system
• They fight infections and cancer

Basophil
Eosinophil
Monocyte
Lymphocyte
Neutrophil
Figure 23.15
42
WBC Type and Function

• WBC count 7000 per µL (1700 RBCs)
• Neutrophils most abundant phagocytic cells in
  the blood
• (60-70 of all WBCs)
• Eosinophils containd oxidases peroxidases
• -increase during allergic reactions
• -parasitic infections
• Basophils also important in allergic reactions
• -do not contain lysosomes
• -histamine in the cytoplasm (inflamm.)
• -heparin acts as an anticoagulant
  (prevents blood clots)
• Lymphocytes produce antibodies attack bacteria
  viruses
• two types of cells form (B cells T cells)
• Monocytes Largest of all WBCs that become
  macrophages
• (about 5 of all WBCs)

43
Differentiation of Blood Cells in the Bone Marrow
Pg. 881
44
Stem cells offer a potential cure for leukemia
and other blood cell diseases

• All blood cells develop from stem cells in bone
  marrow
• Such cells may prove valuable for treating
  certain blood disorders

Figure 23.17
45
Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels are
injured

• When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets respond
• They help trigger the formation of an insoluble
  fibrin clot that plugs the leak

Figure 23.16B
46
Injury to lining of bloodvessel exposes
connectivetissue platelets adhere
1
2
3
Platelet plug forms
Fibrin clot trapsblood cells
Connectivetissue
Plateletplug
Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby
platelets sticky
Clotting factors from
Platelets
Calcium andother factorsin blood plasma
Damaged cells
Pg. 882
Ca ions, clotting factors
Prothrombin (Liver, Vit K)
Thrombin
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Figure 23.16A
47
Fluid Exchange at the Capillary level (pg. 879)
48

• No substance has to diffuse far to enter or leave
  a cell

Capillary
Diffusion ofmolecules
INTERSTITIALFLUID
Tissuecell
Figure 23.1B
49

• The transfer of materials between the blood and
  interstitial fluid can occur by

• leakage through clefts in the capillary walls
• diffusion through the wall
• blood pressure
• osmotic pressure

50
Capillaries allow the Transfer of Substances
Through Their Walls
Figure 23.12A
51
Two Major Forces Blood Pressure and Osmotic
Pressure
Tissue cells
Osmoticpressure
Osmoticpressure
plasma
Interstitial fluid
Arterialend ofcapillary
Venousend ofcapillary
Bloodpressure
Bloodpressure
15
-10
INTERSTITIALFLUID
NET PRESSUREOUT
NET PRESSUREIN
Absorption
Filtration
BP 40 Osm out 3
BP 15 Osm out 3
Osm in -28
Osm in -28
Net Balance 15 -10
52
Fluid Exchange

• Occurs between the capillary and interstitial
  fluid
• Two Major forces
• -Blood pressure (hydrostatic pressure)
• -Osmotic Pressure
• Arterial end Venous End
• -BP higher -BP lower
• -Osm. press. Lower -Osm. press. Pushes in
• -Filtration occurs -Absorption occurs
• (net pressure out) (net pressure in)
• Important note not all the fluid returns back
  in the blood vessels. So fluid accumulates
  outside and is circulated by the lymphatic
  system. (approx. 10)

53

• Chapter 43 The Bodys Defenses
• (pgs. 898-919)

54
Introductory Questions 3 (See chapters 42 43)

• 1) In the cardiac cycle how is systole different
  from diastole?
• 2) Where is the SA and AV node located? What do
  these structures do?
• Name three factors that can affect your blood
  pressure.
• Blood is composed of a variety of things. Make a
  list of cellular and non-cellular substances
  present in blood.
• Briefly explain how blood clots. (pg. 882) What
  proteins and cell parts are required for blood to
  clot?
• What forces are involved in the exchange of gases
  and solutes at the capillary level? (pg. 879)
• What areas of the body do we find a high number
  of lymph nodes?(pg. 901)
• How are B cells different from T cells?

55
The Immune Response Counters Specific Invaders

• Our immune systems responds to foreign molecules
  called antigens
• Infection or vaccination triggers active
  immunity
• The immune system reacts to antigens and
  remembers an invader
• We can temporarily acquire passive immunity

56
Lymphatic System (accessory nervous system)

• Lymph clear, watery fluid formed by interstial
  fluid
• Nodes Nodules composed of lymphocytes filters
  lymph
• Key organs tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen
  and appendix
• Has dead end vessels that are similar to veins
• 3 Major Functions
• -collects returns interstitial fluid and
  protein to blood
• -launches the immune response defends the body
• -absorb lipids from digestive tract

57
LYMPHATICVESSEL
Adenoid
Tonsil
VALVE
Right lymphaticduct, enteringvein
Tissue cells
Lymph nodes
Interstitialfluid
Bloodcapillary
Thoracic duct,entering vein
Thoracicduct
Thymus
LYMPHATICCAPILLARY
Appendix
Spleen
Masses oflymphocytes and macrophages
Bonemarrow
Lymphaticvessels
Figure 23.3
58

• This lymphatic vessel is taking up fluid from
  tissue spaces in the skin

• It will return it as lymph to the blood
• Lymph contains less oxygen and fewer nutrients
  than interstitial fluid

LYMPHATICVESSEL
VALVE
Tissue cells
Interstitialfluid
Bloodcapillary
LYMPHATICCAPILLARY
Figure 23.3B
59

• Lymph nodes are key sites for fighting infection

• They are packed with lymphocytes and macrophages

Masses oflymphocytes and macrophages
Outer capsule oflymph node
Macrophages
Lymphocytes
Figure 23.3C, D
60
Lines of Defense
61
Video The Immune System (10
Statements)-Body Story
62
The Inflammatory Response

• Tissue injury release of chemical signals
• histamine (basophils/mast cells)
•  prostaglandins increases blood flow vessel
  permeability
• Dilation and increased permeability of
  capillary chemokines secreted by blood
  vessel endothelial cells
• mediates phagocytotic migration
  of WBCs
• Phagocytosis of pathogens fever
  pyrogens leukocyte-released molecules increase
  body
• temperature

63
Capillaries allow the Transfer of Substances
Through Their Walls
Figure 23.12A
64
Phagocytic and Natural Killer Cells

• Neutrophils
• 60-70 WBCs engulf and destroy microbes at
  infected tissue- Short lived
• Monocytes (long lived)
• 5 WBCs develop into macrophages which
• enzymatically destroy microbes
• Eosinophils
• 1.5 WBCs destroy large
• parasitic invaders (blood flukes)
• Natural killer (NK) cells
• destroy virus-infected body cells abnormal
  cells

65

• Macrophages Wander in the Interstitial Fluid
• (Moncytes)

• They eat any bacteria and virus-infected cells
  they encounter

Figure 24.1A
66

• Interferon and complement proteins are activated
  by infected cells

Viral nucleic acid
VIRUS
6
Antiviral proteins blockviral reproduction
1
Interferongenesturned on
New viruses
2
mRNA
Interferonstimulatescell to turnon genesfor
antiviralproteins
3
5
Interferonmolecules
4
HOST CELL 1 Makes interferonis killed by virus
HOST CELL 2 Protected against virusby interferon
from cell 1
Figure 24.1B
67
Lines of Defense
68
Specific Immune Response

• Lymphocytes B T cells found in lymph nodes
• Cell-mediated Immunity (T cells)
• -Helper T cells
• -Cytotoxic T cells
• -Macrophages (antigen presenting cell)
• Antibodies (B cells) Humoral immunity
• Memory cells (clonal selection)- B cells

69
Specific Immunity

• Lymphocyctes pluripotent stem cells... B
  Cells (bone marrow) T Cells (thymus)
• Antigen a foreign molecule that elicits a
  response by lymphocytes (virus, bacteria, fungus,
  protozoa, parasitic worms)
• Antibodies antigen-binding immunoglobulin,
  produced by B cells
• Antigen receptors plasma membrane receptors on b
  and T cells

70
Lymphocytes Mount a Dual Defense

• Two kinds of lymphocytes carry out the immune
  response
• B cells secrete antibodies that attack antigens
• T cells attack cells infected with pathogens

BONE MARROW
Stem cell
THYMUS
Viablood
Immaturelymphocytes
Antigenreceptors
T cell
B cell
CELL-MEDIATEDIMMUNITY
HUMORALIMMUNITY
Viablood
Lymph nodes,spleen, and otherlymphatic organs
Final maturation of B and T cellsin lymphatic
organ
OTHER PARTSOF THELYMPHATICSYSTEM
Figure 24.5
71
Types of immune responses

• Humoral immunity
• B cell activation
• Production of antibodies
• Defend against bacteria, toxins, and viruses free
  in the lymph and blood plasma
• Cell-mediated immunity
• T cell activation
• Binds to and/or lyses cells
• Defend against cells infected with bacteria,
  viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasites non-self
  interaction

72
The initial immune response results in a type of
memory

• In the primary immune response, clonal selection
  produces memory cells
• These cells may confer lifelong immunity

Figure 24.8A
73
B cells are the main warriors of humoral immunity

• Triggered by a specific antigen, a B cell
  differentiates into an effector cell
• The effector cell is called a plasma cell
• The plasma cell secretes antibodies

74
Clonal selection musters defensive forces against
specific antigens

• When an antigen enters the body, it activates
  only lymphocytes with complementary receptors
• B and T cells multiply into clones of specialized
  effector cells that defend against the triggering
  antigen
• This is called clonal selection

75
Clonal Selection

• Effector cells short-lived cells that combat the
  antigen
• Memory cells long-lived cells that bear
  receptors for the antigen
• Clonal selection antigen-driven cloning of
  lymphocytes
• Each antigen, by binding to specific receptors,
  selectively activates a tiny fraction of cells
  from the bodys diverse pool of lymphocytes this
  relatively small number of selected cells gives
  rise to clones of thousands of cells, all
  specific for and dedicated to eliminating the
  antigen.

76
Antigen molecules
Variety ofB cells in a lymph node
Antigen receptor(antibody oncell surface)
Cell growth division, and differentiation
Clone of manyeffector cellssecretingantibodies
Endoplasmicreticulum
Antibodymolecules
Figure 24.7
77
Antigens have specific regions where antibodies
bind to them
Pg. 903

• Antigenic determinants are the molecules to which
  antibodies bind

Antibody Amolecules
Antigen-bindingsites
Antigenicdeterminants
Antigen
Antibody Bmolecule
Figure 24.6
78

• An antibody molecule has antigen-binding sites
  specific to the antigenic determinants that
  elicited its secretion

Pg. 904
Antigen-binding sites
Light chain
Heavy chain
Figure 24.10B
79
Antibodies are the weapons of humoral immunity

• An antibody molecule

Figure 24.10A
80
Induction of Immune Responses

• Primary immune response lymphocyte proliferation
  and differentiation the 1st time the body is
  exposed to an antigen
• Plasma cells antibody-producing effector B-cells
• Secondary immune response immune response if the
  individual is exposed to the same antigen at some
  later time Immunological memory

81

• When memory cells are activated by subsequent
  exposure to an antigen, they mount a more rapid
  and massive secondary immune response

Unstimulated lymphocyte
First exposure to antigen
FIRST CLONE
Memory cells
Effector cells
Second exposure to antigen
SECOND CLONE
More memory cells
New effector cells
Figure 24.8B
82
Ch. 43-Immunity Video

• What epidemic was discussed in the video?
• What process does Edward Golub explain in the
  video?
• Name the first line of defense explained by Vet.
  Scott Weldy
• Name the cells mentioned by Dr. Galph that are
  considered to be front line soldiers of the
  immune system. What disease did Dr. Galph
  contract when he was a child?
• Name the specific cell that HIV attacks.
• What does the final segment investigate? Name
  the disorder that Carolyn had.
• Important Test Pages
• Write the title for each segment and FIVE
  statements for each segment.

83
PRIMARY RESPONSE (initial encounter with antigen)
Antigen
Antigen receptoron a B cell
Antigen binding to a B cell
Cell growth, division, and differentiation
Clone ofcells
Memory B cell
Plasma cell
Antibody molecules
Later exposure to same antigen
SECONDARY RESPONSE (can be years later)
Cell growth, division, and further differentiation
Larger clone of cells
Plasma cell
Memory B cell
Antibody molecules
Figure 24.9
84
Antibody Structure Function (pg. 904)

• Epitope region on antigen surface recognized by
  antibodies
• 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains joined by
  disulfide bridges
• Antigen-binding site (variable region)
• Gene Rearrangement plays a major role in
  generating a diverse amount of lymphocytes
  secreted antibodies (pg. 906)

85
Binding of antibodies to antigens inactivates
antigens by
Neutralization (blocks viral binding sites
coats bacterial toxins)
Agglutination of microbes
Precipitation of dissolved antigens
Activation of complement
Complement molecule
Bacteria
Virus
Antigen molecules
Bacterium
Foreign cell
Hole
Enhances
Leads to
Phagocytosis
Cell lysis
Macrophage
Figure 24.11
86
5 classes of Immunoglobins (pg. 912)

• IgM 1st to circulate indicates infection too
  large to cross placenta (complements)
• IgG most abundant crosses walls of blood
  vessels and placenta protects against bacteria,
  viruses, toxins activates complement (Fetus
  immunity)
• IgA produced by cells in mucous membranes
  prevent attachment of viruses/bacteria to
  epithelial surfaces also found in saliva, tears,
  saliva and perspiration
• IgD do not activate complement and cannot cross
  placenta found on surfaces of B cells probably
  help differentiation of B cells into plasma and
  memory cells
• IgE very large small quantity releases
  histamines-allergic reaction from
• mast cells

87
Monoclonal antibodies are powerful tools in the
lab and clinic

• These molecules are produced by fusing B cells
  specific for a single antigenic determinant with
  easy-to-grow tumor cells

Antigen injected into mouse
Tumor cells grown in culture
B cells (from spleen)
Tumor cells
Cells fused to generate hybrid cells
Single hybrid cell grown in culture
Antibody
Hybrid cell culture, producing monoclonal
antibodies
Figure 24.12A
88

• These cells are useful in medical diagnosis

• Example home pregnancy tests
• They are also useful in the treatment of certain
  cancers

Figure 24.12B
89
Immunity in Health Disease

• Active immunity/natural conferred immunity by
  recovering from disease
• Active immunity/artificial immunization and
  vaccination produces a primary response
• Passive immunity transfer of immunity from one
  individual to another
• natural mother to fetus breast milk
  artificial rabies antibodies
• ABO blood groups (antigen presence)
• Rh factor (blood cell antigen) Rh- mother vs. an
  Rh fetus (inherited from father)

90
Lines of Defense
91
List of Key Terms Substances for Non-Specific
Defense Mechanisms

• Histamine (mast cells)
• Heparin
• Antimicrobial proteins (complements)
• Examples Interferon
• Lysozymes (skin mucous membranes)
• Chemokines (direct phagocytic cells)
• Natural Killer cells (apoptosis)
• antigens

92
Specific Defense Mechanisms

• Involves B cells T cells-----------Lymphocytes
• Production of Antibodies (B cells)-humoral
• Production of T cells-activation of Cytotoxic T
  cells cell mediated
• Cloning includes effector cells memory cells
• -B cells, Cytotoxic T cells, or a Helper T cell
  
• APC antigen presenting cell (macrophage) or
  sometimes referred to as a dendritic cell
• MHC antigen complexes on an APC
• Cytotoxic T cells make CD8-------class I MHC
• Helper T cells make CD4----------class II MHC

93
T cells mount the Cell-mediated defense and aid
humoral immunity

• Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells are the main
  effectors of cell-mediated immunity
• Helper T cells also stimulate the Humoral
  responses

94
Helper T lymphocytes

• Function in both humoral cell-mediated immunity
• Stimulated by antigen presenting cells (APCs)
• T cell surface protein CD4 enhances activation
• Cytokines secreted (stimulate other
  lymphocytes) a) interleukin-2 (IL-2)
  activates B cells and cytotoxic T cells b)
  interleukin-1 (IL-1) activates helper T cell to
  produce IL-2

95
Humoral Response w/B cells Helper T cells
Antigen---APC
Helper T cell (CD4)
Antibody Mediated Immunity
Cytokines released
Helper T cells Divide
Helper T B-Cell MHC II (complex)
B cells Divide grow
Antibodies Released
96

• The helper T cells receptors recognize the
  self-nonself complexes on the APC

• The interaction activates the helper T cells
• The helper T cell can then activate cytotoxic T
  cells with the same receptors

Self protein displaying an antigen
Cell-mediated immunity (attack on infected cells)
Cytotoxic T cell
Interleukin-2 stimulates cell division
T cell receptor
Interleukin-2 activates other T cells and B cells
cytokines
HelperT cell
APC
Humoral immunity (secretion of antibodies
by plasma cells)
B cell
Interleukin-1 activateshelper T cell
Figure 24.13B
97

• Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected body cells and
  destroy them

Perforin released
1
2
Cytotoxic T cell bindsto infected cell
Perforin makes holesin infected cells membrane
3
Infected cell is destroyed
Holeforming
Foreignantigen
INFECTED CELL
CytotoxicT cell
Perforinmolecule
Figure 24.13C
98
Cytotoxic T Cells may help Prevent Cancer

• Cytotoxic T cells may attack cancer cells
• The surface molecules of cancer cells are altered
  by the disease

Figure 24.14
99

• Cell-mediated immunity

• An antigen-presenting cell (APC) first displays a
  foreign antigen and one of the bodys own self
  proteins to a helper T cell

Microbe
Macrophage (will become APC)
1
Antigen from microbe(nonself molecule)
Self protein
Self protein displaying antigen
T cell receptor
Bindingsite for self protein
3
2
Helper T cell
4
Binding site for antigen
APC
Figure 24.13A
100
Cell-mediated Cytotoxic T cells
101
The immune system depends on our Molecular
Fingerprints

• The immune system normally reacts only against
  non-self substances
• It generally rejects transplanted organs
• The cells of transplanted organs lack the
  recipients unique fingerprint of self proteins

102
Self/Non-self Recognition

• Self-tolerance capacity to distinguish self from
  non-self
• Autoimmune diseases failure of self-tolerance
  multiple sclerosis, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis,
  insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
• Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC) body cell
  surface antigens coded by a family of genes
• Class I MHC molecules found on all nucleated
  cells
• Class II MHC molecules found on macrophages, B
  cells, and activated T cells
• Antigen presentation process by which an MHC
  molecule presents an intracellular protein to
  an antigen receptor on a nearby T cell
• Cytotoxic T cells (TC) bind to protein fragments
  displayed on class I MHC molecules
• Helper T cells (TH) bind to proteins displayed
  by class II MHC molecules

103
Malfunction or failure of the immune system
causes disease

• Autoimmune diseases
• The system turns against the bodys own molecules
• Immunodeficiency diseases
• Immune components are lacking, and infections
  recur
• Physical and emotional stress may weaken the
  immune system

104
Overview of Human Immune System Function
105
Abnormal immune function

• Allergies (anaphylactic shock) hypersensitive
  responses to environmental antigens (allergens)
  causes dilation and blood vessel permeability
  (antihistamines) epinephrine
• Autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis, lupus,
  rheumatoid arthritis, insulin-dependent diabetes
  mellitus
• Immunodeficiency disease SCIDS (bubble-boy)
  A.I.D.S.

106
The Continuing Problem of HIV

• Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is
  epidemic throughout much of the world
• 14,000 people are infected with the AIDS virus
  every day
• HIV is the virus that causes AIDS
• HIV is transmitted mainly in blood and semen
• Former L.A. Laker Magic Johnson is one of
  900,000 Americans who are HIV-positive

107

• Our immune system is a specific defense system

• It backs up several mechanisms of nonspecific
  resistance
• HIV attacks the immune system
• It eventually destroys the bodys ability to
  fight infection

108
AIDS leaves the body defenseless

• The AIDS virus attacks helper T Cells
• This cripples both cell-mediated and humoral
  immunity
• So far, AIDS is incurable
• Drugs and vaccines offer hope for the future
• Practicing safer sex could save many lives

109
Chapter 42 Respiratory System
110
Introductory Questions 4

• Give two reasons as to why gas exchange in the
  air is more advantageous than in the water.
• Name the four types of surfaces used for gas
  exchange in animals.
• Why must there be a countercurrent flow of blood
  and water over the gill filaments in fish?
• When exhaling air, does your diaphragm contract
  or relax? Explain what tidal volume, vital
  capacity and residual capacity mean.

111
Requirements for Gas Exchange

• Respiratory surfaces must
• -have a large surface area
• -be moist
• -allow diffusion to occur easily (thin)
• -have a good blood supply

112
The Tracheal System of Insects ProvidesDirect
Exchange Between the Air and Body cells

• Land animals exchange gases by breathing air
• Air contains more O2 and is easier to move than
  water
• But water loss from the respiratory surfaces can
  be a problem

113

• In insects, a network of tracheal tubes carries
  out gas exchange

• O2 diffuses from the finely branched tubes
  directly into cells

Figure 22.5B
114

• Some animals use their entire skin as a
  gas-exchange organ

• Example earthworms

Cut
Cross sectionof respiratorysurface (theskin
coveringthe body)
CO2
O2
Capillaries
Figure 22.2A
115
Air sacs
Tracheae
Openingfor air
Bodycell
Tracheole
Airsac
Trachea
Air
Body wall
Figure 22.5A, C
116
Terrestrial Vertebrates have Lungs

• In humans and other mammals, air enters through
  the nasal cavity
• It passes through the pharynx and larynx into the
  trachea
• The trachea forks to form two bronchi
• Each bronchus branches into numerous bronchioles

117

• In most animals, specialized body parts carry out
  gas exchange

• Gills in fish

Body surface
Respiratorysurface(gill)
Capillaries
CO2
O2
Figure 22.2B
118
Gas Exchange
119
Countercurrent flow in the gills Enhances O2
transfer

• Blood flows through the lamellae in a direction
  opposite to water flow
• This countercurrent maintains a diffusion
  gradient that maximizes the uptake of O2

Water flowover lamellae
Blood flowthroughlamellae
Figure 22.4
120

• Other organisms, such as birds, have air sacs

• These structures act as bellows that keep air
  flowing through the lungs
• However, they do not function directly in gas
  exchange

Air
Air
Anteriorair sacs
Trachea
Posteriorair sacs
Lungs
Lungs
Airtubesin lung
1 mn
EXHALATIONAir sacs empty lungs fill
INHALATIONAir sacs fill
Figure 22.8B
121

• Geese have adaptations that allow them to fly
  over the Himalayas

• Their efficient lungs draw more oxygen from the
  atmosphere
• Their hemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen
• They have a large number of capillaries to
  deliver this oxygen-rich blood to tissues and
  muscles

122
Mammalian Respiratory Systems

• Larynx (upper part of respiratory tract)
• Vocal cords (sound production)
• Trachea (windpipe)

• Bronchi (tube to lungs)
• Bronchioles
• Alveoli (air sacs)
• Diaphragm (breathing muscle)

123

• The bronchioles end in clusters of tiny sacs
  called alveoli

• Alveoli form the respiratory surface of the lungs
• Oxygen diffuses through the thin walls of the
  alveoli into the blood

Figure 22.6C
Oxygen-richblood
Oxygen-poorblood
Bronchiole
Alveoli
Blood capillaries
Figure 22.6B
124
Ch. 43-Immunity Video

• What epidemic was discussed in the video?
• What process does Edward Golub explain in the
  video?
• Name the first line of defense explained by Vet.
  Scott Weldy
• Name the cells mentioned by Dr. Galph that are
  considered to be front line soldiers of the
  immune system.
• What does the final segment investigate?
• Important Test Pages 935, 937, and 944
• Write the title for each segment and FIVE
  statements for each segment.

125
Cummulative Topics to Review-Test 3

• Alternation of Generation CSF
• Protein Structures (amino acids) Genetic crosses
• Monocots dicots Behavior (learning)
• Plant hormones Glycolysis (enzymes)
• Flower structures Endo/Ecto therms
• Acid/base-define Muscle contraction
• Sympathetic/parasympathetic NS Natural Selection
• Eye, Ears, Nose, Throat struct. Water potential
• Striated/non-striated muscle tissue Cell juntions
• Primary/Secondary growth-plants Sarcomere struct.
• Action potential (wave) Electron acceptors
• Major parts of the brain (4) Plant groups
• Kreb cycle Genetic Disorders
• Photosythesis (2) Mutations
• Genetic variation (causes) Hardy-Weinberg
• Meiosis Mitosis

126
Breathing

• Positive pressure breathing pushes air into
  lungs (frog)
• Negative pressure breathing pulls air into lungs
  (mammals)
• Inhalation diaphragm contraction Exhalation
  diaphragm relaxation
• Tidal volume amount of air inhaled and exhaled
  with each breath (500ml)
• Vital capacity maximum tidal volume during
  forced breathing Regulation CO2 concentration
  in blood (medulla oblongata)

127

• Smoking causes lung cancer and contributes to
  heart disease

• Smoking also causes emphysema
• Cigarette smoke makes alveoli brittle, causing
  them to rupture
• This reduces thelungs capacity for gas exchange

Figure 22.7A, B
128

• The human respiratory system

Nasalcavity
Pharynx
(Esophagus)
Left lung
Larynx
Trachea
Rightlung
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Diaphragm
(Heart)
Figure 22.6A
129
O2
Lung
CO2
1
Breathing
Circulatorysystem
2
Transportof gases bythe circulatorysystem
Mitochondria
3
Servicing ofcells withinthe bodytissues
O2
CO2
Capillary
Cell
Figure 22.1
130
Surviving in Thin Air

• The air at the height of the worlds highest
  peak, Mt. Everest, is very low in oxygen
• Even expert mountain climbers do not always
  survive the journey
• Thin air can weaken muscles, damage the
  digestive system, cloud the mind, and sometimes
  fill the lungs with blood

131
Volumes for Air Exchange

• Vital Capacity 4500 cm3 Breath out all
  the air you can
• Tidal volume 500 cm3 Normal
  breath
• Inspirational reserve 3000 cm3 Excess air
  you can still breath in
• --------------------------------------------------
  ------------------------------------
• Residual air left over 1200 cm3 (cannot
  be forced out)
• Lungs will collapse, alveoli require this amount
  of air at all times.

132
Breathing ventilates the lungs

• Breathing is the alternation of inhalation and
  exhalation

Rib cageexpands asrib musclescontract
Rib cagegets smalleras rib musclesrelax
Airinhaled
Airexhaled
Lung
Diaphragm
INHALATIONDiaphragm contracts(moves down)
EXHALATIONDiaphragm relaxes(moves up)
Figure 22.8A
133
Breathing is automatically controlled

• Breathing control centers are located in the pons
  and medulla of the brain
• These automatic controls keep breathing in tune
  with body needs

134

• During exercise, the CO2 level in the blood
  rises, lowering the blood pH

• This triggers a cascade of events

Brain
Cerebrospinal fluid
BREATHING CONTROLCENTERSstimulated by
Pons
CO2 increase / pH decreasein blood
Medulla
Nerve signalindicating lowO2 level
Nerve signalstriggercontractionof muscles
O2 sensorin artery
Diaphragm
Figure 22.9
Rib muscles
135
How Changes in Blood pH occur

• Normal blood pH is 7.4
• More CO2, causes the blood to be more acidic
• In the Erythrocyte
• (carbonic anhydrase)
• CO2 H2O ? H2CO3 ? H and HCO3-
• HCO3- is carried in the plasma Cl- takes its
  place
• 
  (Chloride shift)
• H causes the O2 to be released by the hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin acts as a buffer by binding to the
  Hs present
• CO2 is transported through the blood in the form
  of a bicarbonate ion HCO3-.

136

• Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells

• It carries most of the oxygen in the blood

Hemegroup
Iron atom
O2 loadedin lungs
O2
O2 unloadedin tissues
O2
Polypeptide chain
Figure 22.10B
137
TISSUE CELL

• Most CO2 in the blood combines with water to form
  carbonic acid

CO2 produced
INTERSTITIALFLUID
CO2

• The carbonic acid breaks down to form H ions and
  bicarbonate ions
• These help buffer the blood

BLOODPLASMAWITHINCAPILLARY
CO2
Capillarywall
CO2
H2O
REDBLOODCELL
Hemoglobinpicks upCO2 and H
H2CO3
Carbonic acid
HCO3

H
Bicarbonate
HCO3
Figure 22.11A
138
ALVEOLAR SPACE IN LUNG

• Most CO2 is transported to the lungs in the form
  of bicarbonate ions

CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
H2O
HemoglobinreleasesCO2 and H
H2CO3
HCO3

H
HCO3
Figure 22.11B
139
Respiratory Pigments Gas Transport

• Oxygen transport-
• Hemocyanin found in hemolymph of arthropods and
  mollusks (Cu)
• Hemoglobin vertebrates (Fe)
• Carbon dioxide transport-
• Blood plasma (7)
• Hemoglobin (23)
• Bicarbonate ions (70)
• Deep-diving air-breathers-
• Myoglobin oxygen storing protein

140
Video Gas ExchangeWrite 10 Statements from the
video
141
How Does Gravity Affect Blood Circulation?

• As with all land animals, the giraffe and the
  corn snake are constantly subject to the force of
  gravity

142

• The circulatory system keeps blood pumping
  despite gravitys pull

• Muscle contractions help blood travel uphill in
  the veins of a giraffes long legs
• The wriggling of the corn snake squeezes its
  veins and increases circulation

143
Smoking is one of the Deadliest assaults on our
Respiratory System

• Mucus and cilia in the respiratory passages
  protect the lungs
• Pollutants, including tobacco smoke, can destroy
  these protections
• Smoking kills about 430,000 Americans each year

144

• Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air we
  can inhale and exhale

• But our lungs hold more than this amount
• The alveoli do not completely collapse
• A residual volume of dead air remains in the
  lungs after exhalation

145
Blood Transports the Respiratory Gases, with
Hemoglobin carrying the oxygen

• The heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs
• In the lungs it picks up O2 and drops off CO2
• In the tissues, cells pick up CO2 and drop off O2
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the
  lungs and the tissues

146
The Human Fetus Exchanges Gases with the mothers
bloodstream
Placenta, containingmaternal blood vesselsand
fetal capillaries

• A human fetus depends on the placenta for gas
  exchange

Umbilical cord,containing fetalblood vessels
Amnioticfluid
Uterus
Figure 22.12
147

• A network of capillaries exchanges O2 and CO2
  with maternal blood that carries gases to and
  from the mothers lungs

• At birth, increasing CO2 in the fetal blood
  stimulates the fetuss breathing control centers
  to initiate breathing

148
Cummulative Topics to Review-Test 3

• Alternation of Generation CSF
• Protein Structures (amino acids) Genetic crosses
• Monocots dicots Behavior (learning)
• Plant hormones Glycolysis (enzymes)
• Flower structures Endo/Ecto therms
• Acid/base-define Muscle contraction
• Sympathetic/parasympathetic NS Natural Selection
• Eye, Ears, Nose, Throat struct. Water potential
• Striated/non-striated muscle tissue Cell juntions
• Primary/Secondary growth-plants Sarcomere struct.
• Action potential (wave) Electron acceptors
• Major parts of the brain (4) Plant groups
• Kreb cycle Genetic Disorders
• Photosythesis (2) Mutations
• Genetic variation (causes) Hardy-Weinberg
• Meiosis Mitosis