Macro analysis of techniques to deal with uncertainty within information systems development: Mappin

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Macro analysis of techniques to deal with
uncertainty within information systems
development Mapping representational framing
influences

• Carl Adams
• Department of Information Systems, University of
  Portsmouth, UK
• David E. Avison
• Department SID, ESSEC Business School,
  Cergy-Pontoise, France

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Introduction

• ISD methods and techniques provides
• structure, directed tasks and cognitive tools
• support for developers when learning about
  requirements and addressing uncertainties
•  
• Each development technique is different
•  
• According to the framing effect (Tversky and
  Kahneman 1973) peoples understanding of a
  problem is profoundly influenced by how the
  problem is presented.

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• This paper
• Maps framing influences of techniques
• Focuses on effect on problem cognition and
  Techniques (as lowest common denominator
  between methodologies)
• Draws on the cognitive psychology literature
•  
• Develops a new classification of techniques

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Development methods and techniques

• Initial observation
• There are many different techniques
• However, there are also many similarities between
  different techniques.
•  

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What techniques offer

•         Reduces the problem to a manageable
  set of tasks.
•         Provides guidance on addressing the
  problem.
•         Adds structure and order to tasks.
•         Provides focus and direction to tasks.
•         Provides cognitive tools to address,
  describe and represent the problem.
•         Provides the basis for further analysis
  or work.
•         Provides a communication medium between
  interested parties.
•         Provides an output of the
  problem-solving activity.
•         Provides general support for
  problem-solving activities.

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Also,

• gtgt aids developers understand the problems and
  requirements of an IS
•  
• Wastell (1996) uses two concepts to describe this
  learning support
• 'social defence' (Menzies-Lyth 1988 Schein 1985)
  against the unknown and,
• transitional objects and space

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• We argue that the operation of these defences
  can come to paralyse the learning processes that
  are critical to effective IS development These
  social defences refer to modes of group behaviour
  that operate primarily to reduce anxiety, rather
  than reflecting genuine engagement with the task
  at hand Transitional spaces have two important
  aspects a supportive psychological climate and a
  supply of appropriate transitional objects (i.e.
  entities that provide a temporary emotional
  support). (Wastell 1999, p3)

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Characteristics of techniques

• Visual attributes, e.g. visual representation and
  structure of technique output.
• Linguistic attributes, e.g. terminology and
  language used not just English language, but
  also others such as mathematical and
  diagrammatical (Adams 1987, p103).
• Genealogy attributes, e.g. history of techniques,
  related techniques.
• Process/procedure attributes, e.g. description
  and order of tasks.
• People attributes, e.g. roles of people involved
  in tasks.
• Goal attributes, e.g. aims and focus of
  techniques.
• Paradigm attributes, e.g. discourse,
  takenfor-granted elements, cultural elements.
• Biases, e.g. particular emphasis, items to
  consider, items not considered.
• Technique or application-specific attributes.

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Classification of techniques by representational
characteristics

• Based on Waddingtons (1977) natural attributes
  for grouping items.
• Six groups
• (i) Brainstorming Approaches,
• (ii) Relationship Approaches,
• (iii) Scenario Approaches,
• (iv) Reductionist Approaches,
• (v) Matrix Approaches and,
• (vi) Conflict Approaches.

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Impact on problem understanding lessons from
cognitive psychology

• Visual influences Gestalt psychologists
•  
• Max Wetheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka
•  
• In Gestalt theory, problem representation rests
  at the heart of problem solving the way you
  look at the problem can affect the way you solve
  the problem. The Gestalt approach to problem
  solving has fostered numerous attempts to improve
  creative problem solving by helping people
  represent problems in useful ways. (Mayer 1996,
  p68)

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• gtgt The way in which a problem is represented
  (visual, linguistic) will affect the
  understanding 
• gtgt perceptual grouping (i.e. how people
  understand and group items)
•  
• gtgt functional fixedness
• prior experience can have negative effects in
  certain new problem-solving situations the idea
  that the reproductive application of past habits
  inhibits problem solving (Mayer 1996).
• eg Learnt habits biases
•  
• Support theory (Tversky and Koehler 1994)
  implications
• gtgt support for an option will increases the more
  that the option is broken down into smaller
  components
•  

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Structure influences

• gtgt category inclusion (Anderson and Bower 1973).
  
• One enduring principle of rational inference is
  category inclusion categories inherit the
  properties of their superordinates (Sloman 1998,
  p1).

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Order and discourse influences

• gtgt Order influences Perception is influenced by
  order of information presented and the relational
  constructs of information (Mulligan 1999).
• e.g. by forcing leading questions or leading
  processes.
•  
• gtgt Discourse and language influences
• languages of thought Adams (1987)
•  
• gtgt understanding/acceptance principle (Slovic
  and Tversky 1974), particularly between the
  normative than to descriptive representations
•  
• gtgt more than the literal meaning can be implied
  in terms Teigens (1988) language of
  uncertainty

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Preference influences

• gtgt individual preferences and biases for tasks,
  eg Puccios 1999) work on creative problem
  solving
•  
• gtgt group and individual biases

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Goal influences

• Goals provide direction and focus
• gtgt profoundly influence problem understanding
  (Anderson 1987)
• gtgt influence the information gathering/learning
  strategies
• Techniques with clear task goals will impact the
  focus and form of information collection.

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Potential blocks to problem cognition
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From Adams (1987)
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Applying framing influences
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Summary

• This paper has contended that techniques
  influence problem understanding
• Tried to indicate how different types of
  technique are likely to influence cognition
• (map framing effect of techniques)
•  
• Identified some potential biases and blocks to
  cognition

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Thank you for your time

• Any questions?