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Title: Water, Fish, and Wildlife


1
Chapter 12
  • Water, Fish, and Wildlife

2
Chapter Headings
  • Fish and wildlife protection
  • Wetlands and wildlife
  • Case studies
  • Columbia River Basin
  • Florida vs. Georgia
  • In-stream flows

3
Early Fish and Wildlife Protection
  • Early laws on fish and wildlife protection dealt
    mainly with hunting and fishing rights
  • Laws to protect fish and wildlife began in mid
    1900s
  • At that time it was recognized that some species
    were declining rapidly
  • Bald eagle, the national symbol, was rarely seen
    except in Alaska

4
Fish and Wildlife Protection
  • Endangered Species Act (ESA) passed in 1973
  • Two categories of species recognized
  • Endangered Plants and animals in danger of
    extinction in the foreseeable future throughout
    all or a significant portion of their range
  • Threatened Species likely to become endangered
    in the foreseeable future
  • Goal is to increase the populations of these
    species
  • Includes securing habitat to aid recovery

5
Fish and Wildlife Protection
  • ESA applies to federal agencies
  • No federal action can jeopardize a listed species
    or adversely affect habitat
  • Particularly affects COE and USBR water projects
  • Also applies to individuals
  • Prohibits the taking (killing, harming, or
    harassment) of listed species
  • Individuals can sue federal government for
    failure to follow ESA

6
Why Save Endangered Species?
  • Environmental Important to maintain foodweb of
    plants and animals. Loss of critical elements of
    web (keystone species) could cause total
    disruption of natural environment
  • Examples gopher tortoises and cave bats

Keystone arch collapses without the keystone at
the top
7
Why Save Endangered Species?
  • Economic Plant and animal species such as
    salmon provide economic benefits to businesses
    such as commercial fisheries and tourism
  • Medicine Approximately 50 of prescribed
    medicines derived from plant and animal
    substances
  • Agriculture Wild strains of crop species are
    gene-pool source for improved varieties with
    greater resistance to disease, drought tolerance,
    and other desirable traits

8
Why Save Endangered Species?
  • Recreation Ecotourism, such as bird and whale
    watching, is important economically and as a
    quality of life issue
  • Religious/spiritual/aesthetic Many feel that
    stewardship of natures resources greatly
    enhances quality of life

9
Why Save Endangered Species?
  • Some of the greatest biodiversity in North
    America is in southeastern streams
  • Mississippi River provided an escape route south
    from glaciers
  • Many species ended up in tributaries
  • 18 of the top 20 watersheds in continental U.S.
    with greatest number of endangered species are in
    Tennessee, Ohio, Cumberland, and Mobile River
    basins
  • http//endangered.fws.gov
  • http//www.fws.gov/Athens/endangered.html

10
Why Save Endangered Species?
  • Endangered species include darters and mussels in
    Georgia
  • Mussel mantles are extraordinary example of
    evolution

11
Chapter Headings
  • Fish and wildlife protection
  • Wetlands and wildlife
  • Case studies
  • Columbia River Basin
  • Florida vs. Georgia
  • In-stream flows

12
Wetlands and Wildlife
  • Estimated that more than 11 of U.S. landmass was
    wetlands before Europeans arrived
  • Native Americans valued wetlands and hunting
    beaver was prohibited in many tribes
  • Early legislation aimed at draining wetlands
  • Swamp Acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860
  • Estimated that over 50 of original wetlands have
    been drained

13
Wetlands and Wildlife
  • U.S. policy on wetlands changed drastically in
    the 1970s
  • Clean Water Act
  • Endangered Species Act
  • National Environmental Policy Act
  • Wetland functions
  • Critical habitat for many species
  • Filter for pollutants
  • Groundwater recharge or discharge areas

14
Wetlands and Wildlife
  • More than 1/3 of endangered/threatened species
    live only in wetlands
  • Nearly ½ of these species use wetlands in some
    stage in their life cycle
  • Current U.S. policy for federally funded programs
    is no net loss of wetlands
  • Clean Water Act requires permit from COE and EPA
    for development that will impact wetlands

15
Chapter Headings
  • Fish and wildlife protection
  • Wetlands and wildlife
  • Case studies
  • Columbia River Basin
  • Florida vs. Georgia
  • In-stream flows

16
Columbia River Basin
  • Columbia River Basin is North Americas 4th
    largest watershed
  • Columbia River and Snake River
  • 18 mainstem dams, 10 of these are federal
    irrigation/hydroelectric projects
  • 9 operated by COE
  • 1 operated by USBR
  • Includes Grand Coulee Dam, largest hydroelectric
    producer in North America

17
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18
Columbia River Basin
  • 5 species of salmon live along the Columbia River
    system
  • Chinook (king salmon), coho, chum, sockeye, and
    pink
  • Also steelhead trout, shad, smelt, and lamprey
  • Steelhead trout same as freshwater rainbow trout
    but spends part of its life at sea
  • Unlike salmon they do not die after spawning

19
Columbia River Basin
  • Salmon life cycle
  • Hatch in gravel bottoms of freshwaters streams of
    Columbia River Basin
  • Spend up to 2 years maturing in streams which
    provide protective habitat
  • Then travel downstream to Pacific where they
    spend 4-5 years following North Pacific currents
  • When spawning time arrives travel back up
    Columbia to spawn and die at the same site where
    they were born
  • Spawning grounds may be 2,000 miles upstream

20
Columbia River Basin
  • Salmon evolution (article by Lichatowich1)
  • Ancestral salmon were a freshwater species
  • About 15 million years ago salmon started making
    short feeding forays into estuaries that were
    rich in food
  • Evolved a salt-pump in their gills that allowed
    them to move to full-strength seawater
  • Gorged themselves on rich oceanic pastures and
    returned to home waters much larger than
    freshwater species
  • Anadromous Fish that hatch in freshwater,
    migrate to ocean to grow and mature and return to
    freshwater to reproduce

1Jim Lichatowich, A Natural History of Pacific
Salmon, 2004
21
Columbia River Basin
  • Salmon evolution continued (article by
    Lichatowich1)
  • Return of salmon each year to Columbian Basin
    represented a huge input of nutrients and energy
    harvested from ocean
  • At least 22 species of mammals and birds feed on
    salmon carcasses (brown bears to wrens)
  • Nutrients are also taken up by streamside shrubs
    and trees
  • Salmon is a keystone species

1Jim Lichatowich, A Natural History of Pacific
Salmon, 2004
22
Columbia River Basin
  • Over fishing in the late 1800s and early 1900s
    caused serious decline in salmon numbers
  • As dams were built on the Columbia these limited
    migration to spawning grounds and return to sea
  • Fish ladders used to provide route around dams
    for salmon going upstream
  • Barges and tanker trucks used to transport mature
    salmon downstream
  • Bypass lines installed for downstream travel
  • Limited success

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29
Columbia River Basin
  • Annual salmon runs declined from 6 million to
    9,000 fish in Yakima River
  • Grand Coulee Dam completed in 1941
  • Too high for fish ladders
  • 1,000 miles of spawning grounds in upper Columbia
    lost

30
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31
Columbia River Basin
  • Fish hatcheries were established to replenish
    wild salmon
  • Research showed disadvantages of fish hatcheries
  • Fish try to return to hatchery to spawn
  • Hatchery fish do not learn how to hide from
    predators
  • Genetic diversity important for survival is lost

32
Columbia River Basin
  • Some groups are advocating breaching dams on the
    lower Columbia
  • Hydroelectricty produced by dams played a
    critical role during WWII
  • Today there is excess hydroelectric capacity
  • Is providing cheap irrigation water to farmers
    worth decline in salmon populations?
  • Dam removal projects http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki
    /Dam_removal

33
Chapter Headings
  • Fish and wildlife protection
  • Wetlands and wildlife
  • Case studies
  • Columbia River Basin
  • Florida vs. Georgia
  • In-stream flows

34
Florida vs. Georgia
  • Long running court case over flow in the
    Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) basin
  • Only recently has the Endangered Species Act
    become an issue in the conflict
  • Three species of mussels and Gulf sturgeon
    endangered according to US Fish and Wildlife
    Service
  • Mussels filter water of pollutants and serve as
    food source for raccoons, otters, and muskrats
  • Referred to as Phase II
  • Phase I is about Atlantas right to withdraw
    water from Lake Lanier

35
Florida vs. Georgia
Fat threeridge mussel http//dsc.discovery.com/new
s/2006/06/07/mussels_tra_zoom0.html?categorytrave
lguid20060607153010
36
Florida vs. Georgia
Gulf sturgeon http//www.riversofalabama.org/Conec
uh/gulf-sturgeon.gif
37
Florida vs. Georgia
  • Little is known about water needs of mussels
  • In recent court decision on Phase II Judge
    Magnuson ruled that Floridas case is moot
  • Because of his earlier ruling on Phase I gave
    Georgia and COE 3 years to get approval from
    Congress for a new operating plan for Lake Lanier

38
Chapter Headings
  • Fish and wildlife protection
  • Wetlands and wildlife
  • Case studies
  • Columbia River Basin
  • Platte River Basin
  • Florida vs. Georgia
  • In-stream flows

39
In-stream Flows
  • Rivers for Life Managing Water for People and
    Nature
  • Published in 2003
  • Sandra Postel and Brian Richter
  • Most of our rivers no longer have natural flow
  • Maintaining environmentally-friendly flow more
    than guaranteeing a minimum flow
  • Australia and South Africa leaders in this area
    or science
  • Also called enviromental flows and ecosystems
    services

40
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41
Flood stage in Murray-Darling Basin Australia,
December, 2003
42
In-stream Flows
  • Process for determining desired flows
  • Assemble scientists with knowledge about
    individual species
  • Determine what are the key high and low flow
    needs of each species
  • Guiding principle getting close to natural flow
    will be best
  • Develop a plan
  • Use adaptive management in implementing plan
  • Monitor to see if its working if not modify
    plan

43
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44
Chapter Summary
  • Endangered Species Act passed in 1972
  • Destruction of habitat is the main cause of
    extinction
  • Wetlands are critical habitat
  • Salmon are threatened in Columbia River
  • Georgia vs Florida court case involves 3
    endangered species
  • In-stream flows more than a minimum flow

45
Postscript
  • Boulder CO update
  • http//www.nytimes.com/2011/10/30/us/boulder-seeks
    -to-take-power-from-the-power-company.html?_r1hp
    w

46
Additional Topics
  • Klamath project
  • Platte River basin
  • Everglades project
  • Snail darter vs. Tellico Dam

47
Klamath Project
  • In 1905 Congress authorized USBR to develop
    Klamath Project
  • Delivers irrigation water to dry lands in
    southern Oregon for agriculture
  • Area in rain shadow of Cascade Mountains (12-14
    in)
  • 210,000 acres of irrigated alfalfa, barley, oats,
    wheat, potatoes, and sugar beets

48
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49
Klamath Project
  • In 2001 a severe drought occurred
  • USBR announced due to ESA it would have to limit
    irrigation water to users for the benefit of
    endangered salmon and other species
  • Federal officials stated that ESA took precedence
    over long-standing irrigation policy in the area
  • Caused outrage among water users
  • USBR put guards and surveillance cameras at
    irrigation headgates
  • Crops lost due to lack of water

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51
Klamath Project
  • Drought continued in 2002
  • USBR lowered the minimum required flow to allow
    diversion of water to irrigation users
  • Near record low flows in river resulted
  • Above average populations of salmon entered the
    river to travel upstream and spawn
  • September there was a fish kill 34,000 adult
    salmon and steelhead
  • Attributed to crowding of fish and elevated
    temperatures which made fish susceptible to
    disease

52
October, 2009
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55
Additional Topics
  • Klamath project
  • Platte River basin
  • Everglades project
  • Snail darter vs. Tellico Dam

56
Platte River Basin
  • Platte River is a mile wide and an inch deep
  • Braided river with numerous channels and sand
    bars
  • Due in part to high flows from snow melt in the
    Rockies
  • Ideal habitat for endangered birds migrating to
    and from Canada

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58
Platte River Basin
  • Sandhill Crane
  • Each year 80 of species converge on 150-mile
    section of Platte River during migration
  • Also hundreds of thousands of ducks and geese

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60
Platte River Basin
  • Whooping crane
  • Approximately 400 birds are left
  • Shallow water with good visibility of approaching
    prey is ideal feeding ground

61
Platte River Basin
  • Many cities along Front Range of Rockies get
    their water from reservoirs on National Forest
    land in the headwaters of the South Platte River
  • Greeley, Fort Collins, Boulder, and Denver
  • In late 1980s cities filed with U. S. Forest
    Service for renewal of 30-yr permits
  • NEPA (passed in 1970) required Environmental
    Impact Statement

62
Platte River Basin
  • USFS concluded that reservoirs reduced flow and
    affected habitat of endangered migratory birds in
    the Platte River Basin
  • Permits would not be renewed without a
    one-for-one replacement of water diversions
  • For every acre-foot of water stored in CO, one
    acre-foot of water would have to be released to
    critical habitat in central NE

63
Platte River Basin
  • Cities protested
  • Years of negotiations followed
  • 1997 agreement was signed between governors of
    CO, WY, and NE and U.S. Department of Interior
  • Plan designed to restore critical habitat
  • Once this is done, limited water development will
    be allowed upstream

64
Platte River Basin
  • Elements of plan
  • Increase flow in critical habitat area by 130,000
    to 150,000 acre-ft in the next 10 yr
  • Reserve storage in two reservoirs to be used to
    maintain flow during critical periods
  • Ultimately, 417,000 acre-ft of additional flow
    will be available for environmental flows

65
Additional Topics
  • Klamath project
  • Platte River basin
  • Everglades project
  • Snail darter vs. Tellico Dam

66
Everglades Project
  • Everglades is the largest freshwater wetland in
    the world
  • Slow-moving river 50-miles wide flowing from Lake
    Okeechobee region to southern tip of Florida
  • Over 50 of original wetlands have been lost to
    drainage
  • Everglades National Park protects 20 of area

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68
Everglades Project
  • Everglades is home to 14 endangered or threatened
    species
  • Includes wood stork and Florida panther

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70
Everglades Project
  • Extensive system of canals installed to drain
    Everglades Agricultural Area in 1930s
  • Just to the north of the Everglades
  • Agricultural Area now dominated by sugar cane
    corporations
  • Phosphorus and nitrogen in runoff from sugar cane
    fields causing eutrophication in Everglades
  • Drainage canals have altered and reduced natural
    flows through Everglades

71
Everglades Project
  • In 1994 Everglades Forever Act was passed
  • Partnership between federal government and
    Florida
  • Established artificial wetlands (stormwater
    treatment areas) between sugar cane fields and
    Everglades to reduce nutrient concentrations
  • In 1996 Florida voters defeated proposed tax of 1
    cent/pound of sugar
  • Funds would have been used to expand conservation
    measures in Everglades

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73
Everglades Project
  • In 2000, Congress authorized federal payment of
    50 of 10.9 billion estimated to restore
    Everglades
  • Florida legislature passed legislation to fund
    more than 2 billion of cost

74
Additional Topics
  • Klamath project
  • Platte River basin
  • Everglades project
  • Snail darter vs. Tellico Dam

75
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
Conflict described in Marc Reisners Cadillac
Dessert and Chapter 12 of textbook
76
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • Jimmy Carters first experience with dams was as
    Governor in Georgia
  • Carter had a degree in engineering from U.S.
    Naval Academy
  • Dam was proposed on Flint River at Sprewell Bluff
    by COE
  • Now a state park http//gastateparks.org/find?loc
    ationid66
  • Carter read COE plan
  • Wrote blistering 18-page letter to COE accusing
    it of computational manipulation
  • The COE lied to me he told friends
  • Vetoed plans for the dam

77
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • Shortly after election as President in 1976
    Carter reviewed federal program to manage water
    resources
  • 19 new water projects were proposed by USBR and
    COE
  • Concluded There is no coherent water resources
    management policy
  • Later Carter vetoed a bill to fund the projects

78
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • Tennessee Valley Authority
  • Created during the Great Depression by President
    Franklin Roosevelt
  • A corporation clothed with the power of
    government but possessed of the flexibility and
    initiative of a private enterprise
  • First attempt at watershed approach to planning
  • Goal was to aid development in poor rural areas
    by providing cheap electricity, fertilizers, etc.
  • Did this by developing hydroelectric dams
  • www.tva.gov/sites/sites_ie2.htm

79
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • TVA started out with a good approach but then
    outgrew its mission
  • in Reisners view
  • By 1970s much of the electric power was being
    generated by coal-powered plants
  • Strip mining coal was destroying the land
  • Much of the area was still poverty-stricken
  • Coal-powered plants were contributing to acid
    rain problems in the northeast

80
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • Tellico Dam had been proposed by TVA in 1960s
  • Dam would not produce hydropower
  • Would raise the level in the Little Tennessee
    River so that extra water could be run through a
    canal to an existing hydroelectric dam
  • Would produce relatively insignificant additional
    power
  • No flood control benefit
  • Little recreational benefit (many other
    reservoirs in surrounding area)
  • Approved for construction in 1969

81
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • Endangered Species Act passed in 1973
  • In 1973, professor of zoology from University of
    Tennessee discovered snail darter in Little
    Tennessee River
  • 1975 USFW classified snail darter as an
    endangered species
  • Court ordered dam construction halted
  • Decision upheld by Supreme Court in 1978

82
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • Congress began considering amendments to ESA that
    would allow construction of Tellico Dam
  • Passed a law that set up a Cabinet-level
    committee that would resolve any case where ESA
    stopped construction of a dam
  • Composed of Secretaries of Interior, Agriculture,
    Army, EPA and others
  • Called the God Squad

83
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • In 1978 God Squad reviewed case
  • Unanimously decided against dam construction
  • Based decision on economics, not environmental
    impact
  • Cost-benefit analysis was faulty and did not
    justify construction

84
Snail Darter vs. Tellico Dam
  • June 1979 Congress approved a little-noticed
    amendment to House appropriations bill
  • Exempted Tellico Dam from ESA
  • Congress approved appropriations bill
  • Carter could veto bill
  • Needed Congressional support for treaty that
    would return Panama Canal to Panama
  • Couldnt afford to alienate key congressmen
  • Tellico Dam was completed in 1980
  • 1984 USFW downgraded snail darter from endangered
    to threatened
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