Achieving Nationalist Goals in

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When Revolutions Fail . . .
Achieving Nationalist Goals in Italy and Germany
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Realpolitik
After 1850, European political leaders became
less interested in policies shaped by idealism
(liberalism and nationalism). Instead, they
pursued the interests of their states with coldly
realistic considerations of power and little
regard for ideals or morality.
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Two Masters of Realpolitik
Leaders of Italian and German Unification
Movements
Camillo di Cavourfrom Piedmont-Sardinia
Otto von Bismarck from Prussia
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Question of the Day
Why did Cavour and Bismarck succeed in uniting
their nations, whereas all attempts before them
had failed?
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1850 Italy
Lombardy Venetia, the richest part of Italy,
under Austrian control
Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by Victor Emmanuel II, a
king from the House of Savoy
Modena, Parma, Tuscany, independent duchies
Papal States, under temporal and spiritual
control of Pope Pius IX
Kingdom of the 2 Sicilies, ruled by Ferdinand II,
a Spanish Bourbon
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Failures of 1848
Uprisings in Naples suppressed, separatist
Sicilians forced to reunite Broken Promises of
Constitutions Papal States, Tuscany,
Piedmont Failure of Mazzinis Roman Republic Old
Dukes of Modena, Parma, Tuscany restored by
Austrian forces
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Reasons for Failure 1. lack of cooperation
among revolutionaries 2. liberals insisted on
constitutions in each state before unification
radicals disagreed 3. different ideas of
unity Mazzini -- a republic Pope Pius IX -- a
confederation Charles Albert -- a kingdom 4.
lack of popular support 5. superiority of
Austrian forces
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. . . from The Duties of Man O my brothers, love
your Country! Our country is our Home, the house
that God has given us, placing therein a numerous
family that loves us, and whom we love Our
country is our common workshop, whence the
products of our activity are sent forth for the
benefit of the whole world.
Giuseppe Mazzini(1805-1872) The Soul
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Cavour's Tactics

• encouraged trade and industry
• expanded railway net in Piedmont
• promoted agricultural production
• joined Britain and France vs. Russia in the
  Crimean War
• secret agreement with Napoleon III at Plombières

The Brain
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Plombières, July 1858

• Napoleon III pledged to support Cavour in any war
  vs. Austria, as long as Austria attacked first
• Napoleon accepted Piedmonts right to annex
  Austrias lands in northern Italy
• Napoleon agreed to the formation of an Italian
  confederation with Piedmont in control of the
  northern part of the peninsula
• In return, Cavour offered to give Napoleon Savoy
  and Nice (two ethnically French sections of
  Piedmont)

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Cavour's Tactics
The experience of recent years and previous
centuries has proved how little Italy has
benefitted from conspiracies, revolutions, and
disorderly uprisings . Now, gentlemen, I believe
that the principal condition for the improvement
of Italys fate, the condition that stands out
above all others, is to lift up her reputation
once more. . . . And for this two things are
necessary first, to prove to Europe that Italy
has sufficient civic sense to govern herself
freely and according to law, and that she is in a
condition to adopt the very best forms of
government second, to prove that her military
valor is as great as that of her
ancestors. (From a speech to the Parliament of
Piedmont, 1855)
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Success! A United Northern Italy

• Cavours armies defeated Austrians in the summer
  of 1859, driving them from Lombardy.
• Meanwhile, in the Papal States and other parts of
  central Italy, revolts broke out as people aimed
  to overthrow their leaders and join Piedmont!
• Finally, Napoleon had second thoughts about
  supporting Italy, and allowed Cavour to take only
  Lombardy.

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Meanwhile, in the South . . .
Garibaldi Returns! Leading a volunteer-army of
Red Shirts, he marched up from the south, and
kingdoms all along the way fell to his rebels.
Giuseppe Garibaldi(1807-1882)
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Italians!The Sicilians are fighting against the
enemies of Italy, and for Italy. It is the duty
of every Italian to succour them with words,
money, and arms, and, above all, in person. . . .
Listen not to the voice of cowards, but arm, and
let us fight for our brethren, who will fight for
us tomorrow. . . .
The Sword
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Cavour Hits the Brakes
As Garibaldis armies approached Rome, Cavour
decided to take action to prevent him from
further conquest.
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Garibaldi gives in, and accepts Victor Emmanuel,
Piedmonts king, as ruler in 1860.
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Historiography Traditional view unification
achieved through cooperation of Cavour
Garibaldi Dennis Mack Smith Italy unified
despite the fact that Cavour and Garibaldi
distrusted each other Idealist view a
culmination of Risorgimento liberalism and
nationalism Fascist view (same as above but no
liberalism) Marxist view unification (and
nationalism) was a way for the middle classes to
gain power
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King Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed Constitutional
King of Italy, March 1861 The national unity
which is today attained will have, I hope, the
effect of rendering less bitter the struggles of
parties, the rivalry of which will have
henceforth no other end than the development of
the productive forces of the nation.
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(No Transcript)
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Germany, 1850
Forces Uniting Germans ? language ? reaction
against Napoleon ? Zollverein (except Austria) ?
traditions, customs, literature
Forces Dividing Germans ? Austria France ?
1848 failures ? religion Catholic south,
Protestant north
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Prussia Takes the Lead

• Prussia?!
• reactionary government dominated by
  conservative Junkers
• little popular involvement in politics, as the
  Diet had few true powers
• no freedom of expression

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Prussia Takes the Lead

• Yeah, Prussia!!
• the only German state with a modern economy
• industry, banks, road/rail networks
• Otto von Bismarck

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Otto von Bismarck

• A True Conservative . . .
• wanted to maintain Junker power
• meant to preserve the monarchy
• cared little for nationalism, a middle-class
  cause

German Chancellor 1862-1890
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Otto von Bismarck

• . . . in Liberal Nationalist
• Disguise!
• wanted Prussia to dominate Germans (not
  Austria)
• courted the middle-class for success
• promoted economic development
• accepted trappings of a parliamentary system

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Bismarck's Rise to Power

• ? Prussias King Wilhelm I desired military
  reform . . .
• ? which would involve a 25 tax increase.
• ? Liberals in parliament said NO, so . . .
• Wilhelm selected Bismarck
• as chancellor to break the deadlock. Bismarck
  sent Prussian bureaucrats
• to collect taxes without Diet
• approval, and the people
• willingly paid!

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Bismarcks "Iron and Blood" speech September 29,
1862 Not by speeches and decisions of
majorities will the greatest problems of the time
be decided-that was the mistake of 1848-49-but by
iron and blood.
Franz von Lehnbach, Otto von Bismarck , oil on
canvas, 1879German Historical Museum, Berlin
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Bismarck's Wars

• 1863 supports Russia in putting down Polish
  Rebellion
• war vs. Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein
• Biarritz agreement with Napoleon III
• 1866 Austro-Prussian War

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. . . and Their Results

• Prussia defeated Austria, annexing
  Schleswig-Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover,
  Nassau, and Frankfurt
• North German Confederation united under
  Prussian leadership

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. . . and Their Results
? Proof of Prussian military superiority ?186
6 Indemnity Bill Bismarck admitted government
fault in collecting taxes illegally in return
for retroactive Diet approval
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But what about southern Germans?
Most southern German states had little interest
in a merger with north Germany in the 1860s, so .
. .
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Franco-Prussian War
? A Hohenzollern candidate for Spanish throne? ?
The Ems telegram to Bismarck "Count Benedetti
intercepted me on the promenade and ended by
demanding of me in a very importunate manner that
I should authorize him to telegraph at once that
I bound myself in perpetuity never again to give
my consent if the Hohenzollerns renewed their
candidature. I rejected this demand somewhat
sternly as it is neither right nor possible to
undertake engagements of this kind.
32
Bismarcks Edited, Press-Released Version of the
Ems Telegram "After the news of the
renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern had
been communicated to the Imperial French
government by the Royal Spanish government, the
French Ambassador in Ems made a further demand on
His Majesty the King that he should authorize him
to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King
undertook for all time never again to give his
assent should the Hohenzollerns once more take up
their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon
refused to receive the Ambassador again and had
the latter informed by the adjutant of the day
that His Majesty had no further communication to
make to the Ambassador."
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(No Transcript)
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Results of the Franco-Prussian War

• ? French defeat at the Battle of Sedan
• Napoleon III taken prisoner
• ( 82,000 other Frenchmen)

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Results of the Franco-Prussian War

• ? Creation of the German Empire, Jan. 1871
• Wilhelm I becomes the German Kaiser
• unity imposed from above constitution seen as
  a gift from the princes to the German people
  rather than a right of the people
• Reichstag universal male suffrage, but little
  true power
• Bundesrat appointed members

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Results of the Franco-Prussian War

• ? Treaty of Frankfurt, Feb. 1871
• surrender of Alsace-Lorraine
• national humiliation for France
• 5000 million francs indemnity
• ceremonial entry to Paris by Prussian army

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A New Nation, Born in War
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What Was Bismarck's Role?
? Was Bismarck a genius diplomat, architect of a
long-laid plan of German unification? What an
extraordinary man Bismarck is! He meets me for
the first time and tells me all he is going to
do. He will attack Denmark in order to get
possession of Schleswig-Holstein, he will put
Austria out of the German confederation and then
he will attack France -- an extraordinary man!
(British PM Disraeli on a meeting with Bismarck
in 1862) ? Was Bismarck merely a master
opportunist? By himself the individual can
create nothing he can wait only until he hears
Gods footsteps resounding through events and
then spring forward to grasp the hem of his
mantle! (Bismarck himself)
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Bismarck Quotations
"Politics is the art of the possible, the
attainable . . . the art of the next best."
"Laws are like sausages. It's better not to see
them being made." "Better pointed bullets than
pointed words." "Never believe in anything until
it has been officially denied." "I am bored. The
great things are done. The German Reich is made."
"A generation that has taken a beating is always
followed by a generation that deals one." "Some
damned foolish thing in the Balkans." (Bismarck's
prediction on what would trigger the next war)