UNIT 3: PERSONALITY, MOTIVATION

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UNIT 3PERSONALITY, MOTIVATION EMOTION
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Personality

• What do we mean when we say
• She has a wonderful personality
• He has no personality
• He seems to have a personality conflict
• Its just her personality
• She has her mother personality

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What is personality?

• Personality comes from Latin word persona.
• Persona ? means mask.
• The study of personality can be understood
  as the study of mask that people wear.
• Personality are the personas that people
  project and display.
• Personality also includes the inner parts of
  psychological experiences which we collectively
  call our self (I)

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I is for personality Adams (1955)

• Personality is I
• When you say I ? you are in fact summing up
  everything about yourself
• Your likes
• Your dislikes
• Your fears and virtues
• Your strengths weaknesses

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Definitions of Personality

• The entire organization of a human being at
  any stage of development.
• The integrations of those systems or habits
  that represent an individualss characteristic
  adjustments to the environment.
• The way in which a person does such
  things as remembering, thinking or loving.
• The various enduring and distinctive patterns
  of behavior and thought that are
  characteristics of a particular person.
• Patterns of behavior, thoughts and emotions
  unique to an individual, the way they
  interact to help or hinder the adjustment of
  a person to other people and situation.

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Definitions of Personality

• Personality is not an existing substantive
  entity to be searched for but a complex
  construct to be developed and defined by the
  observer Smith Vetter, 1982
• Personality usually refers to the distinctive
  patterns of behavior (including thoughts
  emotions) that characterize each individuals
  adaptation to the situations of his or her life
  Mischel, 1976
• Personality is a dynamic organization, inside
  the person, of psychophysical systems that
  create a persons characteristic pattern of
  behavior, thoughts and feelings. Carver
  Scheier, 2000

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• Dynamic Organization
• Suggest on going readjustments, adaptation to
  experience, continual upgrading and
  maintaining of self.
• Personality doesnt just lie there ? but has
  process and its organized.
• Inside the person
• Suggests internal storage of patterns, supporting
  the notion that personality influences
  behaviors, etc.
• Psychophysical System
• The physical is who we are
• Characteristics Patterns
• Implies that consistency/continuity which are
  unique to each individual.
• Behavior, Thoughts Feelings
• Indicate that personality includes a wide range
  of psychological experience/ manifestation, ie.
  Personality is displayed MANY ways.

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Personality as the SELF

• Self is the collections of beliefs that we
  hold about ourselves
• E.g. What are our important characteristics?
• What are we good at?
• What do we do poorly at?
• What kind of situations do we prefer or avoid?
• Self have 2 distinct meaning
• Self as an object
• Self as a process

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Self as Object (Self Concept/self-image)

• Attitude about our self.
• A picture of the way we look and act.
• The impact we make on others.
• Our traits, abilities, weakness or strengths.
• Our feelings, perceptions and evaluations.
• E.g. I am handsome, I am cute, I am friendly,
• I am bad, I am ugly
• Thus Self Concept is the collection of beliefs we
  hold about who we are.

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Self as a Process (Self-esteem)

• Relates to psychological process ? process by
  which we manages and copes, thinks, remembers,
  perceives and plans
• The evaluation we make of ourselves (the
  value that people place on themselves, whether
  they are fundamentally good or bad people,
  talented or not).
• E.g. I think I am very good in mathematic
• Im sure I have lots of friends
• I feel I do not have much to be
  proud of
• High self esteem people have a clear sense
  of what their personal qualities are, think
  well of themselves, set appropriate goals and
  cope successfully with difficult situations.

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Individual Differences

• Each individual is unique.
• It is commonly observed that individuals
  differ in Personality, motivations and emotions
• Studies on individual Differences examine HOW
  and WHY individual differs?

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MOTIVATION
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Story of Mark Wellman
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Story of Mark Wellman

• One cool September morning, Mark Wellman, a
  paraplegic, his friend Mike Corbett began to
  climb a nearly vertical slope of Half Dome,
  rising over 2,200 ft from the ground. For this
  climb Mark trained everyday. Some years ago,
  while on a different climb, he fell 50 feet to
  the ground, hurt his back now paralyzed from
  waist down. In this climb, Mike takes the lead
  and sets supports. Because Marks leg are
  paralyzed, he climbs by using supports to pull
  himself up inch by inch. By end of day seven,
  Mark Mike were very exhausted. They had to
  sleep hanging in sleeping bags anchored to
  the sheer granite wall. Finally, on day 13,
  Mark pulled himself up the last six inches and
  over the top of Half Dome.
• What is Mark doing? Why did he do it?

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WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

• Motivation comes from the same root as
  motion ?
• i.e. something that moves a person.
• According to Morris Maisto (1999), Motive is
  an inner directing force ? a specific need or
  want ? that arouses the organism and directs
  its behavior towards a goal.
• All motives are triggered by stimulus, such as-
• A bodily need
• E.g. hunger, thirst
• A cue in the environment
• E.g. Saw a McDonald advertisement ? feels hungry
• A feelings
• Eg. Loneliness, guilt, anger

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• When one or more stimulus create a motive,
  the result is Goal- directed behavior.

STIMULUS
MOTIVE
BEHAVIOR
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Approaches in motivation

• Instincts innate factors
• Needs Drives
• Incentives
• Beliefs expectations

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Instincts innate factors

• Instinct is a specific, inborn behavior
  patterns that determine the behavior of a
  being.
• Instinct is a goal-directed behavior that is the
  characteristic of entire species.
• Sigmund Freud Konrad Lorenz (1950)
• Viewed motivated behaviors as outlets for
  instinctive energies
• Belief that specific energies accumulated in
  the nervous system had to be released in one
  way or another.
• William James (1890s) ? types of instincts
• hunting, fear, rivalry, curiosity, shyness, love,
  shame, resentment.
• In1920s? psychologist proposed over 6,000
  instincts to encompass every kind of human
  motivation.

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• But by 1930s, instinct theory became
  unpopular in explaining human motivation
  behavior.
• Reasons
• Most significant human behavior is not
  inborn, but learned thru experiences.
• Human behavior is not rigid, but flexible and
  always changing.

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Needs Drives

• Needs
• A biological state in which the organism
  lacks something essential for survival.
• E.g. Food, water, oxygen.
• The NEED produces a DRIVES ? which is a
  state of arousal (or state of tension) during
  which the organism engages in behaviors to
  reduce the need.
• Once Need is satisfied ? the body returns to
  and remain in a more balanced state ? which
  is call HOMEOSTSIS.

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Drive-Reduction Theory

• Needs Drive Homeostasis Drive-Reduction
  Theory
• A Drive-Reduction Theory is when
• A need results in a drive ? which in turn
  arouses the organism to engage in behaviors
  to reduce the need and return the body to
  homeostasis.
• Behavior is directed towards reducing a
  state of bodily tension or arousal.

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Limitation of Drive-reduction theory

• Sometimes Drive reduction theory doesnt
  explain all motivated behavior.
• Situations How to explain this?
• Sometimes when we are bored, we tend to seek
  out activities that heighten tension
  arousal.
• We just had our lunch ? but the sight smell
  of a cheese cake makes us hungry.
• Some psychologist belief that our behavior
  is motivated by unconscious drives.
• Thus, sometimes object in the environment,
  called INCENTIVES ? can also motivate
  behavior.

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Incentives

• Incentives
• External stimulus that prompts goal-directed
  behavior
• Reinforces, goals or rewards that may be
  positive or negative and that motivates
  ones behavior.

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Conclusion

• Need Drive ?occur inside the body.
• Incentives ? occur outside the body (external
  rewards)
• According to incentives perspectives
• We are motivated to perform a certain act or
  behavior because we wish to obtain the
  incentives (praise, recognition, reward).

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Task to think

• WHY MARK CLIMB THE MOUNTAIN?
• DOES MARK CLIMB TO OBTAIN INCENTIVES?
• May be ? to obtain recognition in the form of
  national press coverage, invitations for
  speaking, donations from corporate sponsors.
• But incentives alone is unlikely to explain
  Markss motivation to engage in a life
  threatening behavior?
• So what other factor influence him?
• What motivate him/us to continue performing the
  same behavior after our need is already met?

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Beliefs Expectations

• Extrinsic motivation
• Influences us to perform behaviors to reduce
  biological needs or obtain various incentives.
• Intrinsic motivation
• Influences us to perform behaviors because
  the behavior themselves are personally
  rewarding or because we are following our
  personal goals, belief or expectations.
• Emphasize on self-determination, which combines
  the feelings that we are behaving according
  to our chosen expectations and goals ? with
  the belief that we are in control of the
  situation.

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• WHY DOES MARK CLIMB THE MOUNTAIN?
• DID MARK CLIMB BECAUSE OF PERSONAL
  SATISFACTION?
• May be ? Marks belief that
• climbing itself is rewarding
• climbing allow him to be in control of the
  situation
• climbing is a way for him to fulfill his own
  personal goals and expectations

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Types of motivation

• Primary motivations
• Such as desire for food and water ? serve
  obvious biological needs
• Secondary motivations
• Serve biological needs indirectly ? ie. To
  satisfy primary motivation
• Develop as a result of specific learning
  experiences

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• We learn secondary motivation (SM) because they
  help us to satisfy primary motivation (PM)
• We learn desire for money (SM), because it help
  us to obtain food, water, clothing, shelter
  (P.M).
• Sometimes, SM develops due to own
  reasons/goals (independent from PM)
• Collect coins/stamps ? hope to make profit or
  because the collections leads to praise from
  other coin/stamps ethuziasts.
• Human may have unlimited number of SM but a
  limited number of PM (because the biological
  needs of the body is limited).

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EMOTION
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What is Emotion?

• Emotion refers to the experience of such
  feelings as fear, joy, surprise or anger.

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Emotion is a feelings made up of three
components

• Cognitive component
• (conscious/subjective experience)
• E.g. Thinking what to do
• Physiological arousal
• Increase heart rate rush of adrenaline
• Overt behavior
• Action than can be observed

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• Emotions also activate Affect behavior ?
  but it is more difficult to predict the kind
  of behavior that a particular emotion will
  prompt-
• - If a man is hungry ? he will seek
  food.
• If he experience joy/happiness ? he will cry,
  shout, jump, laugh? (difficult to predict his
  action)
• Emotions are intertwined with and give rise
  to motivations.
• Both motives emotions ? push us to take
  some kind of action.

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What is Basic Emotions?

• Basic Emotions are emotions that are either
  recognize in most cultures or help the species
  survive my motivating behaviors or signaling
  physiological needs and physiological moods
  (Ortony Turner)
• Hierarchy of Basic Emotion
• Pleasant
  Unpleasant

Joy
Love
fear
Surprise
Anger
Sadness
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What researchers need to identify basic
emotions

• Reasons
• Help explain our complex emotional experiences
• Researchers agree that emotion are important to
  the physical psychological well being on the
  individual the survival of our species.

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What causes emotion?

• Peripheral theories
• That emphasize on changes in the body.
• James-Lange theory (proposed by William James
  Carl Lang separately in the 1800s)
• Facial Feedback theory
• Cognitive theories
• That emphasize on cognitive factors
• So, What causes an emotion such as fear?

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James-Lange Theory

• According to James-Lange theory-
• Emotions result from specific physiological
  changes in our bodies, and each emotion has a
  different physiological basis.
• Pattern of physiological arousal as the major
  cause of emotions.
• 3 steps in James-Lang Theory
• We perceive stimulus (dog) in our environment ?
  affect the autonomic nervous system.
• The autonomic nervous system causes a specific
  physiological arousal ? increase heart beat,
  blood pressure, breathing ? different pattern of
  physiological for each emotion.
• Brain then interpret each pattern of
  physiological arousal as different emotion.

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Facial Feedback theory

• Sensation or feedback from the movement of facial
  muscles and skin are interpreted by our brain
  and result in an emotion.
• Originated from Charles Darwin? who believe
  that each emotion has its own innate pattern
  of facial muscle movement.
• 3 steps
• We perceive a stimulus as a dog in our
  environment? the perception results in movement
  of the muscles and skin of the face.
• Specific feedback from muscles and skin of the
  face is interpreted by the brain and give
  rise to emotional experience.
• Each different pattern of facial movement is
  interpreted by the brain ad different
  emotion.

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Cognitive Theory

• Consider a situation
• Tony won a million dollar lottery. As he
  showed every one his winning ticket, he
  smiled and laughed and felt his heart
  pounding. He couldnt stop thinking about all
  the things his millions would buy
• How did Tony feel when he won the lottery?
• Emotion and motivation are closely link.
• Tony is motivated to show his tickets to all
  his friends and plan how to use the money
• Thinking about or appraising a situation can
  greatly influence an emotional experience.
• Thinking about buying a car increases Tonys
  happiness.
• Thinking about a large chunk of his winning
  going to taxes might make him a little
  unhappy

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Functions of Emotions

• Emotions help us adapt and survive
• Emotions Motivate and arouse
• Emotions express social signals

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Emotions help us adapt survive

• Crying alert others that we may be in
  pain/discomfort
• Showing disgust may signal the presence of
  poisonous or rotten food
• Feeling angry/afraid ? help us survive a
  dangerous situation escape
• Feeling happy? motivate social activities, bring
  peace of mind, and provide a chance to relax
  and enjoy life

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Emotions Motivate Arouse

• Emotions motivate new behavior but it can also
  disrupt behavior
• There is a relationship between physiological
  arousal that accompany an emotion, with our
  performance on tasks ? Yerkes-Dodson Law
• Yerkes-Dodson Law ? Performance on a task
  depends on the amount of physiological
  arousal and the difficulty of the task.

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Emotions express social signals

• Facial expression that accompany emotions serve
  as social signals that communicate
  physiological needs and psychological moods.
• Facial expression of happiness, anger, sadness,
  fear, disgust, surprise ? are recognize as
  emotional expressions by many cultures.

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Can you identify peoples emotional states from
their facial expression?
A
C
B
F
D
E
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The Happy Expression Signs of Happy Smiles and
Deliberate Smiles

From infancy to old age, smiling is atable
indicatorof a happy emotion in the image above.
Each happyexpression shows signs of actual joy.
Images show the appropriate raising of the lip
corners (smile), but lack the degree of
narrowing of the eyelid and crows-feet
wrinkling that unite with the smile to indicate
an actual happy emotion .
The images above also show the narrowing of the
eyelids, crows-feet wrinklingat the corners of
the eyes, and raising of the outer, upper area
of the cheeks, indicating actual happiness.
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The Sad Expression
This depiction of sadnessshows the down turned
lipcorners and pushed up chin boss consistent
with a sad expression. Also, the eyes are
narrowed, but any actions in the brow area are
obscured. Her posture, gaze direction, and head
orientation help convey the overall sad
expression.
The crying baby face shows elements of thesad
expression narrowed eyes raised
cheeks,eyebrows pulledtogether, lip corners
pulled down, chin bosspushed up, but also
includes lateral lip stretching and has
noraising of the eye bows in the center of the
forehead
A suffering child showsa typical sad expresson
with narrowed eyes and raised cheeks,eyebrows
pulled together raisedin the center of
foreheadforming wrinkles in theglabella, and a
slightly pushed up chin boss. The lips may be
slightly pulled laterally downwards.
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The Angry Expression
Lowered eyebrows, that are pulled together to
form wrinkles in the skin of the forehead
(glabella) tensed straightened lower eyelids,
tension in lipsmouthcharacterize the
angerexpression. The boyabove has pressed
lipswith a slight pushing up of the chin boss.
The woman above shows the closed mouth form of
an anger expression, with lipspressed together,
aided by a pushing up of the chin boss.Like the
other expressions, her brows are pulled together,
though slightly, and herlower eyelids are tensed
and straightened. The uppereyelids are raised.
The man above shows the open mouth form of an
anger expression. His lips are tensed thinned.
Like the other anger expressions, his lower
eyelids are tensed and straightened, the eyebrows
pulled down and together. The upper eyelid is
raised causing a glaring look.
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The Fear Expression
This woman portrays the elements of a
surpriseexpression eyebrows raised straight
up, uppereyelids raised up, jawdropped and
mouth open.However, because of theextreme drop
of the jaw,the lateral pull on the lip corners
causing the lipsto stretch, and the
extremeopening of the eyes, anda tensed lower
eyelid, ablend with a fear expressionis
created. Blends of a fearexpression and a
surpriseexpression are common .
This man is looking down at rat that is climbing
his chest, so the typical actions of fear in
the eyelids, raisedupper lids and tensed
lowerlids, are obscured by his gaze direction.
The eyebrows arepulled up, but do not show much
of the pulling together that would indicate a
fear expression in the brow. The mouth is
stretched laterally, and the neck muscles pulled.
Though containing elements of a fear expression,
this person is probably not very afraid.
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The Disgust Expression
This portrayal captures the essential actions of
onekind of disgust expression - A wrinkled
nose with the eyebrows pulled down and the upper
lip drawn up, the lower eyelid is tensed and the
eye opening narrowed. The pressing of the lips
and raising of the upper eyelids are relevant to
an anger expression whereas the mouth would be
open and the upper eyelids relaxed in the
typical disgust expression. Her turn of the head
to the left is consistent with a disgust
expression, and with avoiding something
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Conflict
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CONFLICT

• "a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals"
  (Myers, 2005, p. 520)
• ex conflict between nations conflict in
  marriage
• While conflict may lead to aggression, it does
  not always do so.

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Social conflict

• A perceived incompatibility of goals between two
  or more parties (Smith Mackie, 2000, p. 504).
• Conflicts can be defined as social facts
  incorporating at least two parties (single
  persons, groups, states, etc.) that go back to
  differences in social living
• Conditions and/or to differences in the conflict
  parties interests.

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Levels of conflicts

• International (war)
• Societal (sexism)
• Intergroup (relationship between East- and West-
  Germans)
• Interpersonal (interpersonal aggression)
• Intrapersonal (cognitive dissonance)

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Types of conflicts (Wagner)

• Manifest
  Latent
• Based on vertical Horizontal
  stratification
• Material
  Identity related
• Divisible
  Undivisible
• Destructive
  Constructive

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WHAT CREATES CONFLICT?

• Social Dilemma
• Individual decisions to promote individual
  well-being lead to adverse social outcomes for
  all
• Competition
• Game competition increases aggressive behavior.
• Perceived injustice
• Perception may be biased, as we overvalue our own
  inputs and devalue those of others.
• Misperception
• of others' motives and goals
• exaggerated sense of incompatibility

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Conflict resolutions

• Conflict regulation
• Pragmatic, avoidance of violence (e.g. peace
  corps)
• Conflict solution
• focussing on the causes of conflicts
• Conflict transformation
• expanding the spectrum of acceptable outcomes

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Defense Mechanism
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What is Defence mechanism?

• A defence mechanism is an unconscious way to
  protect the personality from unpleasant thoughts
  which may cause anxiety.
• However, a defence mechanism can also lead to a
  neurosis if it causes a person to adopt
  ineffectual or inappropriate coping strategies.
• Types of Defence Mechanism
• Displacement
• Introjection
• Projection
• Rationalisation
• Reaction Formation
• Regression
• Repression
• Sublimation

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Types of defense mechanism

• Displacement.
• Redirecting emotion from a 'dangerous' object to
  a 'safe' object. For example punching a cushion
  when angry at your partner.
• Introjection.
• When an individual internalises the values or
  characteristics of another person, usually
  someone who is significant to the individual in
  some way.
• Projection.
• The opposite of introjection. Attributing one's
  own emotions or desires to an external object or
  person. For example saying others hate you when
  it's you who hates the others.
• Rationalisation.
• Inventing a logical reason after an emotional act
  is made.

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Types of defense mechanism

• Reaction formation.
• A feeling is converted into its opposite, for
  example turning hate into love.
• Regression.
• Behaviour reverts to a previous age.
• Repression.
• Thoughts unacceptable to the Ego are moved into
  the unconscious where they cannot be easily
  accessed.
• Sublimation.
• A 'healthy' form of displacem60ent, for example
  playing sport to relieve stress or anger.