Why do we pee

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Why do we pee

• The total volume and chemical composition in the
  body is maintained
• within a limit

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How does it relate?
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The body is mainly water

• How we gain water
• Absorption from liquids and solid food
• Metabolism of nutrients gives off water

• How we loose water
• Urinate
• Sweat
• Breathing
• Water in feces

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Things dissolved in your water

• Nutrients, minerals, hormones, gases
• Wastes Uric acid and ammonia are made during
  metabolism of proteins are converted to Urea in
  the liver
• Phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid are also formed
• Others sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium,
  hydrogen ions, creatinine

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Know the Parts and where they are
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The Great Filters

• Parts of the kidneys
• cortex, medulla, nephron, renal pelvis
• bowmans capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle,
  distal tubule collection duck
• efferent arteriole, and how capillaries are
  arranged

• Roughly 1/5th of each heartbeat moves through the
  kidneys
• Less than 1 ends up as urine
• Located in the lower back

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Urinary System
Figure 15.2
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Know the parts of the kidney and function
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Know Parts and the difference
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Urination

• The flow of urine from bladder to urethra and out
  of the body. The internal urethral sphincter
  controls urine flow from the bladder to the
  urethra. The external sphincter is the voluntary
  control of urination

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The 3 processes of Urine formation

• Filtration
• Reabsorption
• Secretion

• Bowmans acts as a filter, and does not allow
  large particles through
• Useful substances like water and minerals are
  removed from urine
• Secretion, substances are actively dumped from
  the blood by membrane transport

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filtration
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Readsoprtion and secretion
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Location and effect
The Movement of salt gives energy to draw out
water. There is less salt in the outer renal
medulla
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Formation of Dilute Urine
Figure 15.10
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Concentration or Dilution of Urine ADH

• Dilute urine excreting excess water
• Mechanism cycling of NaCl and urea create a
  concentration gradient in the medulla that allows
  water to diffuse from the renal tubules into the
  interstitial fluid and then into the blood
  capillaries
• Concentrated urine conserving water
• Mechanism Countercurrent exchange
• Increased ADH causes increased permeability to
  the collecting tubules and increased conservation
  of water

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Effect of drugs on urination

• Antidiuretic hormone
• Made in response to a decrease in cellular fluid,
  increases water reabsorption

• Caffeine Alcohol
• Diuretics promote loss of water

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Hormonal adjustments to readsorption

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone) from pituitary is
  secreted in response to a decrease in
  extracellular fluid.
• ADH causes distal tubules and collecting ducts to
  release water back into the blood
• excess drinking inhibits ADH production
• Aldosterone is formed when salt levels fall
• causes sodium reabsorption (water moves as well)

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ADH
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Regular Dialysis
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Peritoneal dialysis
Peritoneum as the dialyzing membrane
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Kidneys Role in Homeostasis

• Maintains water balance adjusts blood volume and
  blood pressure
• Aldosterone, renin, ANH help maintain salt
  balance in order to control blood volume
• Maintains acidbase balance and blood pH
• Regulates red blood cell production via
  erythropoietin
• Activates an inactive form of vitamin D

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Acid and Base Homeostasis

• pH balance is maintained by controlling hydrogen
  ions through buffers in blood, respiration, and
  excretion by kidneys
• Bicarbonate is produced by the nephron cells and
  moves into the blood and binds with excess acid
  neutralizing it and producing carbon dioxide and
  water

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Disorders of the Urinary System

• Kidney stones
• Acute and chronic renal failure
• Therapies
• Dialysis
• Kidney transplant

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Reproduction and Development

• How do we duplicate and how do we get here?
• Where are we going?

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The basic reproduction system of a human

• Gonads are the primary reproductive system
• Female ovaries produce eggs
• Male testes produce sperm
• The gonads also produce hormones for reproductive
  functions and secondary sexual traits
• Males testosterone
• Females estrogen and progesterone

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Male Reproductive System
Figure 16.1
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Male Reproductive Organs and Glands
Table 16.1
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Male gonads

• Sperm produced in testes
• Testes are within the scrotum (temps lower than
  body temp allow sperm development)
• Each testes is divided into lobes containing
  seminiferous tubules, where sperm is continuously
  made

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Production of semen

• Produced in seminiferous tubules
• Mature and stored in epididymis
• Move through ductus deferens
• Combine in ejaculatory duct
• Joins urethra in prostate gland
• Seminal vesicles (fructose and prostaglandins)
• Prostate (buffers for acidic vagina)
• Bulbourethral glands secrete mucus

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The spermatozoon

• Head- nucleus DNA and acrosome
• Midpiece (mitochondria)
• Tail (microtubules of the flagellum)
• 350 million sperm in ejaculant

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Hormones and sperm production

• Testosterone produced by Leydig cells stimulate
  spermatogenesis and secondary sex characteristics
• Lutenizing hormone (LH) stimulates testosterone
  production
• FSH stimulates sperm production beginning a
  puberty

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Blood Testosterone Concentration and Sperm
Production
Figure 16.3
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The Female reproductive system

• Ovary site of egg maturation and release
• Released eggs move into oviduct (fertilized?)
• Uterus (zygote implants in endometrial lining)
• Cervix
• Vagina
• Body opening Know the parts. Fig 16.4

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Female Reproductive System
Figure 16.4a
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Female Reproductive System Components
Table 16.2
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Follow egg pathway
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Reproduction function

• At birth each female has 2 million eggs
• At age 7, 300,000 oocytes are present
• Only 400-500 mature during a lifetime
• During the menstrual cycle one oocyte resumes
  meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte
• 1 egg is released roughly every 28 days.

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Menstrual Cycle Uterine Cycle

• Uterine cycle prepares uterus for pregnancy
• Menstrual phase days 15, estrogen and
  progesterone decrease, endometrial lining
  degenerates, menstruation occurs
• Proliferative phase days 614, estrogen and
  progesterone increase, endometrial lining
  proliferates
• Ovulation day 14
• Secretory phase corpus luteum produces
  progesterone and estrogen, endometrium continues
  to proliferate, uterine glands mature

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Ovarian Cycle
Figure 16.6
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Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle
Figure 16.8
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Maintenance of Menstrual Cycle

• Cycles of hormones of pituitary and reproductive
  structures
• Positive feedback
• In proliferative phase, increasing estrogen
  causes surge in LH
• Negative feedback
• In secretory phase, steady levels of estrogen and
  progesterone inhibit LH and FSH release

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Human Sexual Response, Intercourse, and
Fertilization

• Human sexual response excitement, plateau,
  orgasm, resolution
• Male sexual response orgasm, marked by
  ejaculation
• Female sexual response orgasm, marked by
  rhythmic muscular contractions
• Fertilization one sperm penetrates egg

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Sexual Intercourse

• Corpora fill with blood because arteries
  supplying the penis dilate and veins constrict.
• Lubricants come from bulbourethral glands and the
  walls of the vagina
• Orgasm is caused by peristaltic contractions of
  the vesicles and glands that produce semen F.
  contractions of smooth muscle.
• After 15 minutes semen liquefies to allow swimming

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The corpora
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Interruption of the menstrual cycle

• RU486 blocks the action of progesterone at the
  endometrial lining, resulting in normal menses
  and degeneration of the endometrium
• The pill, progestins suppress pituitary
  production of GnRH so FSH is not released and the
  egg is not released. Also change endometrial layer

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Other methods of birth control

• Barrier methods
• Sterilization
• Abstinence
• Chemical methods

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Infertility

• Roughly 15 of American couples are infertile
• Artificial insemination placing semen in the
  vagina or uterus by mechanical means at time of
  ovulation
• Intrafallopian transfers of sperm and oocyte or
  zygote made outside.

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Sexually Transmitted Disease
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Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Worldwide
Problem

• Bacterial gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia
• Viral HIV, hepatitis B, genital herpes, genital
  warts
• Other yeasts (Candida), protozoan (Trichomonas),
  arthropod (pubic lice)
• Prevention
• Strategies choose partner wisely, communicate,
  use suitable barriers, get tested and treated

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Human Development (Ch 21 on Final exam) As of
111207 these are preliminary notes

• From Birth to Death

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Stages of Development

• Gamete formation-fertilization-cleavage-blastula-G
  astrulation (primary tissues)-organogenesis
  (growth and tissue specialization)- morphogenesis
  (production of recognizable structures.

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Pre and post fertilization in development

• In the vagina a sperm will undergo capacitation.
• Sperm binds to zona pellucids of the egg.
• Only one sperm enters without mitochondria.
• Now is a zygote and will undergo repeated cell
  divisions without an increase in size.

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Implantation in the uterus

• A week after fertilization, the continuously
  dividing ball of cells adheres to the uterine
  lining.
• Part of this becomes the embryo part becomes the
  placenta.
• The implanted embryo releases HCG which prods
  the corpus luteum to secrete estrogen and
  progesterone.
• Pregnancy tests look for HCG.

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The placenta

• Endometrial tissue and embryonic chorion.
• Extends into the maternal tissue as tiny
  chorionic villi.
• Materials are exchanged form blood capillaries of
  the mother to fetus and vise versa by diffusion.
• Maternal and fetal bloods do not mix at this time.

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Events of the first trimester

• 1 week placenta and membranes are forming.
• Week 3 the heart begins to beat.
• The neural tube forms if incomplete results in
  spina bifida.
• At 8 weeks the embryo is distinctly human.
• Gonads develop during 2nd half of semester.
• Miscarriage 20 of all conceptions, 1/2
  congenital defects.

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Fetal development

• 2nd trimester
• suckling reflex 4-5 inches long
• 3rd trimester
• 7th month is earliest at which the fetus may
  survive
• often have respiratory distress syndrome
• Fetal circulation is different

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Maternal lifestyle and early development

• Nutrition- proper vitamins minerals calories
  needed for proper development.
• Infections certain viral diseases may cause
  deformities.
• Drugs and alcohol
• antibiotics tetracycline, streptomycin
• cocaine disrupts nervous system
• alcohol has its own syndrome
• cigarette smoke

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Changes with Age
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