Genetics

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FORM SIX
Biology Project
Genetics
Produced by cheung
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Genetics is a fundamental and increasingly
important branch of biology.
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Genetics is a fundamental and increasingly
important branch of biology.
Genes are made of DNA(Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid).A
gene is a unit of hereditary material, which
carries the information to produce protein that
determine the characteristics of an organisms.
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Genetics is a fundamental and increasingly
important branch of biology.
Genes are made of DNA(Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid).A
gene is a unit of hereditary material, which
carries the information to produce protein that
determine the characteristics of an
organisms. Plants and animals have thousands of
genes in their cells.
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Now genetics is a very common topic in the
world.So in the project,I will introduce three
topic about Genetics.
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Now genetics is a very common topic in the
world.So in the project,I will introduce three
topic about Genetics. 1.Genetically Modified
Food
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Now genetics is a very common topic in the
world.So in the project,I will introduce three
topic about Genetics. 1.Genetically Modified
Food 2.Cloning
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Now genetics is a very common topic in the
world.So in the project,I will introduce three
topic about Genetics. 1.Genetically Modified
Food 2.Cloning 3.Genetic diseases
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SECTION 1 Genetically Modified Foods
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1.Genetically Modified Food
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1.Genetically Modified Food Without knowing the
exact mechanism, Farmers centuries ago depended
on various methods to produce grain and plants
which are bigger and easier to grow.
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1.Genetically Modified Food Without knowing the
exact mechanism, Farmers centuries ago depended
on various methods to produce grain and plants
which are bigger and easier to grow.
Now,scientists are learning to identify and
modify genes controlling specific characteristics
through the development of modern biotechnology.
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Modern biotechnology refers to the application
of technique that overcome natural
physiological reproductive or recombinant
barrier and that are not used in traditional
breeding and selection.
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What are the differences between genetic
modification and traditional breeding?
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What are the differences between genetic
modification and traditional breeding?
Both genetic modification and traditional breeding
involve altering the genetic make-up of living
organisms so as to produce the desired traits.
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What are the differences between genetic
modification and traditional breeding?
Both genetic modification and traditional breeding
involve altering the genetic make-up of living
organisms so as to produce the desired traits.
However,the two techniques used in both have
differences.
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What are the differences between genetic
modification and traditional breeding?
Both genetic modification and traditional breeding
involve altering the genetic make-up of living
organisms so as to produce the desired traits.
However,the two techniques used in both have
differences.
So I will explain the differences in following
sections.
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1.Genetic Modification
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1.Genetic Modification

• Isolation and transfer of well-defined genes

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1.Genetic Modification

• Isolation and transfer of well-defined genes
• Introduction of desired genes across the
• species barrier

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1.Genetic Modification

• Isolation and transfer of well-defined genes
• Introduction of desired genes across the
• species barrier
• Faster and less costly

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1.Genetic Modification

• Isolation and transfer of well-defined genes
• Introduction of desired genes across the
• species barrier
• Faster and less costly
• Desired change can be achieved in one
• generation

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2.Traditional Breeding
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2.Traditional Breeding

• Crossing of thousands of genes at
• one time

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2.Traditional Breeding

• Crossing of thousands of genes at
• one time

• Gene transfer usually within-species

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2.Traditional Breeding

• Crossing of thousands of genes at
• one time

• Gene transfer usually within-species

• More time consuming in the process
• of observation and natural selection
• to achieve the desired characteristics

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In the development of GM foods, it can solve
many problems of foods. According to researchers
envision,the development of GM foods will help-
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In the development of GM foods, it can solve
many problems of foods. According to researchers
envision,the development of GM foods will help-

• Increase crop yield

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In the development of GM foods, it can solve
many problems of foods. According to researchers
envision,the development of GM foods will help-

• Increase crop yield
• Increase the tolerance of crops to adverse
• growing conditions,e.g.drought

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In the development of GM foods, it can solve
many problems of foods. According to researchers
envision,the development of GM foods will help-

• Increase crop yield
• Increase the tolerance of crops to adverse
• growing conditions,e.g.drought
• Improve the nutrient composition of crop,
• e.g.increase the protein content of rice

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In the development of GM foods, it can solve
many problems of foods. According to researchers
envision,the development of GM foods will help-

• Increase crop yield
• Increase the tolerance of crops to adverse
• growing conditions,e.g.drought
• Improve the nutrient composition of crop,
• e.g.increase the protein content of rice
• Provide resistance to crop pests and
• reduce the use of pesticides

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• Improve sensory attributes of food,
• e.g.flavor,texture

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• Improve sensory attributes of food,
• e.g.flavor,texture
• Improve processing characteristics so as to
• reduce wastage and costs

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• Improve sensory attributes of food,
• e.g.flavor,texture
• Improve processing characteristics so as to
• reduce wastage and costs
• Eliminate allergy-causing properties in some
• foods

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• Improve sensory attributes of food,
• e.g.flavor,texture
• Improve processing characteristics so as to
• reduce wastage and costs
• Eliminate allergy-causing properties in some
• foods

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Examples of GM Crops/Foods
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Examples of GM Crops/Foods
GM foods available on the market come in many
form.Some are whole foods like crops, but most
are processed foods.
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Examples of GM Crops/Foods
GM foods available on the market come in many
form.Some are whole foods like crops, but most
are processed foods.
But the GM foods on market are similar to
their traditional one,except they have advantages
of being more resistant to herbicidies or
insects, lower wastage rate,etc.
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The example of GM foods are-
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The example of GM foods are-
A)Soya bean It is herbicide tolerance
e.g.Soya beverage,tofu,Soya oil,etc
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The example of GM foods are-
A)Soya bean It is herbicide tolerance
e.g.Soya beverage,tofu,Soya oil,etc
B)Corn It is insect resistance and herbicide
tolerance e.g.corn oil,flour,as ingredients
in snacks and bakery products.
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C)Tomato It is delay softening of tissue
e.g.Tomato puree
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
Since the use of modern biotechnology in food
is a recent development,as a safety measure,
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
Since the use of modern biotechnology in food
is a recent development,as a safety measure, all
GM foods are subjected to rigorous safety
assessments by the industry and regulatory
agencies of the places of origin before putting
into market.
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
Since the use of modern biotechnology in food
is a recent development,as a safety measure, all
GM foods are subjected to rigorous safety
assessments by the industry and regulatory
agencies of the places of origin before putting
into market. In US,GM crops are most abundant,GM
foods are regulated by three federal agencies
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
Since the use of modern biotechnology in food
is a recent development,as a safety measure, all
GM foods are subjected to rigorous safety
assessments by the industry and regulatory
agencies of the places of origin before putting
into market. In US,GM crops are most abundant,GM
foods are regulated by three federal
agencies 1.The Food and Drug Administration
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
Since the use of modern biotechnology in food
is a recent development,as a safety measure, all
GM foods are subjected to rigorous safety
assessments by the industry and regulatory
agencies of the places of origin before putting
into market. In US,GM crops are most abundant,GM
foods are regulated by three federal
agencies 1.The Food and Drug Administration 2.The
Environment Protection Agency
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Safety of Genetically Modified Foods
Since the use of modern biotechnology in food
is a recent development,as a safety measure, all
GM foods are subjected to rigorous safety
assessments by the industry and regulatory
agencies of the places of origin before putting
into market. In US,GM crops are most abundant,GM
foods are regulated by three federal
agencies 1.The Food and Drug Administration 2.The
Environment Protection Agency 3.The United
States Department of Agriculture They are
responsible for safety of GM foods.
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The safety assessment are base on the principle
of substantial equivalence endorsed by
WHO/ FAO and OECD.
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The safety assessment are base on the principle
of substantial equivalence endorsed by
WHO/ FAO and OECD. The concept of substantial
equivalence is that if a new food or component
is found to be substantially equivalence to an
existing food or component is consider to be
safe as it conventional counterpart.
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The safety assessment are base on the principle
of substantial equivalence endorsed by
WHO/ FAO and OECD. The concept of substantial
equivalence is that if a new food or component
is found to be substantially equivalence to an
existing food or component is consider to be
safe as it conventional counterpart. The
considerations include-
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• The safety assessment are base on the principle
• of substantial equivalence endorsed by WHO/
• FAO and OECD.
• The concept of substantial equivalence is that
  if
• a new food or component is found to be
• substantially equivalence to an existing food or
• component is consider to be safe as it
• conventional counterpart.
• The considerations include-
• Characteristics of the donor and host organism.

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• The safety assessment are base on the principle
• of substantial equivalence endorsed by WHO/
• FAO and OECD.
• The concept of substantial equivalence is that
  if
• a new food or component is found to be
• substantially equivalence to an existing food or
• component is consider to be safe as it
• conventional counterpart.
• The considerations include-
• Characteristics of the donor and host organism.
• Composition

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• The safety assessment are base on the principle
• of substantial equivalence endorsed by WHO/
• FAO and OECD.
• The concept of substantial equivalence is that
  if
• a new food or component is found to be
• substantially equivalence to an existing food or
• component is consider to be safe as it
• conventional counterpart.
• The considerations include-
• Characteristics of the donor and host organism.
• Composition
• Dietary intake

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• The safety assessment are base on the principle
• of substantial equivalence endorsed by WHO/
• FAO and OECD.
• The concept of substantial equivalence is that
  if
• a new food or component is found to be
• substantially equivalence to an existing food or
• component is consider to be safe as it
• conventional counterpart.
• The considerations include-
• Characteristics of the donor and host organism.
• Composition
• Dietary intake
• Nutritional data

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• Toxicological data

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• Toxicological data
• Allergenic properties

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• Toxicological data
• Allergenic properties

Where differences are identified, additional
assessments and animal studies will be carried
out.
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• Toxicological data
• Allergenic properties

Where differences are identified, additional
assessments and animal studies will be carried
out.
To date,none of the GM foods in market have been
proved as unfit for human consumption.
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Labelling of GM foods
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Labelling of GM foods
Policies on the labelling of GM foods differ
from country to country and still evolving.
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Labelling of GM foods
Policies on the labelling of GM foods differ
from country to country and still evolving. In
general,there are two schools of thoughts
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Labelling of GM foods
Policies on the labelling of GM foods differ
from country to country and still evolving. In
general,there are two schools of
thoughts 1)Consumersright to knowshould be
protected and all product should be labelled to
enable consumer to make choice.
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Labelling of GM foods
Policies on the labelling of GM foods differ
from country to country and still evolving. In
general,there are two schools of
thoughts 1)Consumersright to knowshould be
protected and all product should be labelled to
enable consumer to make choice. 2)Mandatory
labelling will produce a negative image on GM
foods and since GM foods available in market
are safe.
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Concerns over GM foods/crops
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Concerns over GM foods/crops
A)unintended modification of similar species
in the neighboring field due to cross pollution
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Concerns over GM foods/crops
A)unintended modification of similar species
in the neighboring field due to cross pollution
B)disturbing the balance of ecosystems
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Concerns over GM foods/crops
A)unintended modification of similar species
in the neighboring field due to cross pollution
B)disturbing the balance of ecosystems
C)development of super pests
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Concerns over GM foods/crops
A)unintended modification of similar species
in the neighboring field due to cross pollution
B)disturbing the balance of ecosystems
C)development of super pests
D)whether it is acceptable to move genes
between plants or animals which do not
normally interbreed
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E)some people may worry about eating a food
containing a gene from something they would
not eat for religious,health or other reasons
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The foods are found to have GE ingredients
1)Nestle Pak Fook Beancurd 2)Rose 6 Choc.Ices
(Vanilla Ice-cream Bars with Chocolate
Flavoured Coating 3)Nestle (e.g.Pak Fook Soya
Milk) 4)Gold Valley Soya King Calcium Vitamins
Beverage 5)Herbalife Protein Drink Mix 6)Nissin
Chicken Cup Noddles 7)Nissin Demae Chicken Flavor
Ramen 8)Nissin Demae Ramen Instant
Noodle 9)Nestle Snacks Products 10)Calbee Chips
and Corn Snake 11)Garen Cream Bun 12)Campbells
Golden Corn Condensed Soup.etc.
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SECTION 2 Cloning
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2.Cloning
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2.Cloning
The biological definition of a clone is
an organism that has the same genetic
information as another organism or organisms
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2.Cloning
The biological definition of a clone is
an organism that has the same genetic
information as another organism or organisms
There are basically three ways to clone animals
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2.Cloning
The biological definition of a clone is
an organism that has the same genetic
information as another organism or organisms
There are basically three ways to clone animals
1.Splitting off a cell from an embryo (twinning)
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2.Cloning
The biological definition of a clone is
an organism that has the same genetic
information as another organism or organisms
There are basically three ways to clone animals
1.Splitting off a cell from an embryo (twinning)
2.The Roslin technique used to create Dolly
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2.Cloning
The biological definition of a clone is
an organism that has the same genetic
information as another organism or organisms
There are basically three ways to clone animals
1.Splitting off a cell from an embryo (twinning)
2.The Roslin technique used to create Dolly
3.The Honolulu technique
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1.Splitting off a cell from an embryo
(twinning)
Once an egg has been fertilize by sperm and start
to divide.If it divides into eight embryo and
those eight cells are separated ,
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1.Splitting off a cell from an embryo
(twinning)
Once an egg has been fertilize by sperm and start
to divide.If it divides into eight embryo and
those eight cells are separated ,
Those cells can be implanted into the uteri of
eight separate mother.Then eight clones will be
born of different mother.
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2.The Roslin technique used to create Dolly
It is first explored by Hans Spemenn in the
1920s to conduct genetics research,
nuclear transfer is the is the technique
currently used in the cloning of adult animals.
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2.The Roslin technique used to create Dolly
It is first explored by Hans Spemenn in the
1920s to conduct genetics research,
nuclear transfer is the is the technique
currently used in the cloning of adult animals.
Nuclear transfer requires two cells,a donor cell
and an oocyte.The egg cell works best if it is
unfertilized because it is likely to accept the
donor nucleus.The egg cell must be enucleated.
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First, a cell(the donor cell)was selected form
the udder cells of a Finn Dorset sheep to
provide the genetic information for the clone.
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First, a cell(the donor cell)was selected form
the udder cells of a Finn Dorset sheep to
provide the genetic information for the clone.
The researchers allowed the cell to divide and
form a culture in vitro or outside of an animals.
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First, a cell(the donor cell)was selected form
the udder cells of a Finn Dorset sheep to
provide the genetic information for the clone.
The researchers allowed the cell to divide and
form a culture in vitro or outside of an animals.
This produced multiple copies of the same
nucleus.This step only becomes useful when the
DNA is altered.
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The donor cell is grown is a culture dish
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The donor cell is grown is a culture dish
A donor cell was take from the culture and
starved in a mixture which had enough nutrients
to keep the cell alive.
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This culture dish barely has enough nutrients to
keep the cell alive
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This culture dish barely has enough nutrients to
keep the cell alive
This cause the cell to begin shutting down all
active genes and GO stage.The egg cell was then
enucleated and placed to the donor cell.
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This culture dish barely has enough nutrients to
keep the cell alive
This cause the cell to begin shutting down all
active genes and GO stage.The egg cell was then
enucleated and placed to the donor cell.
Several hours after the removal of egg cell, an
electric pulse was used to fuse the
cells together and activate the development of an
embryo.
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This technique for mimicking the
activation provided by sperm is not completely
correct. Only a few cells survive long enough to
produce an embryo.
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This technique for mimicking the
activation provided by sperm is not completely
correct. Only a few cells survive long enough to
produce an embryo.
The enucleated egg cell and the mammary cell are
fusing together.
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This technique for mimicking the
activation provided by sperm is not completely
correct. Only a few cells survive long enough to
produce an embryo.
The enucleated egg cell and the mammary cell are
fusing together.
If the embryo,it is allowed to grow
and incubating in a sheeps oviduct.(Cells place
in oviducts early in their development are much
likely to survive )
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Finally,the embryo is placed into the uterus of
a surrogate mother ewe.When the ewe give birth,an
exact copy of donor animal is born
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Finally,the embryo is placed into the uterus of
a surrogate mother ewe.When the ewe give birth,an
exact copy of donor animal is born
The newborn sheep has all of the same
characteristics of a normal newborn sheep.
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Finally,the embryo is placed into the uterus of
a surrogate mother ewe.When the ewe give birth,an
exact copy of donor animal is born
The newborn sheep has all of the same
characteristics of a normal newborn sheep.
But it may have a higher risk of cancer or
other genetic diseases that occur with the damage
to DNA in Dolly or other animals cloned
with this method.
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3.The Honolulu technique
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3.The Honolulu technique
In July of 1998,a team of scientist at the
University of Hawaii announced that they
had produced three generations of
genetically identical cloned mice.
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3.The Honolulu technique
In July of 1998,a team of scientist at the
University of Hawaii announced that they
had produced three generations of
genetically identical cloned mice.
The technique is accredited to Teruhiko
Wakayama and Ryuzo Yanagimachi of the
University of Hawaii.
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3.The Honolulu technique
In July of 1998,a team of scientist at the
University of Hawaii announced that they
had produced three generations of
genetically identical cloned mice.
The technique is accredited to Teruhiko
Wakayama and Ryuzo Yanagimachi of the
University of Hawaii.
Mice had long been held to be one of the most
difficult to clone because it begins
dividing after a mouse egg is fertilized.
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Sheep were used in the Roslin technique because
their egg wait several hours before dividing,givin
g time to reprogram its new nucleus.So mouse
cloning is more difficult.
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Sheep were used in the Roslin technique because
their egg wait several hours before dividing,givin
g time to reprogram its new nucleus.So mouse
cloning is more difficult.
In mouse cloning,Unfertilized mouse egg cell
were used as the recipients of the donor
nuclei. After being enucleated,the egg cell had
donor nuclei inserted into them.
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Sheep were used in the Roslin technique because
their egg wait several hours before dividing,givin
g time to reprogram its new nucleus.So mouse
cloning is more difficult.
In mouse cloning,Unfertilized mouse egg cell
were used as the recipients of the donor
nuclei. After being enucleated,the egg cell had
donor nuclei inserted into them.
Unlike Dolly,culturing was done on the cell
but not outside.After several hours,the egg was
then placed in a chemical culture to start cells
growth.
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After being started,the cells develop into embryo.
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After being started,the cells develop into embryo.
These embryo can then be transplanted into
surrogate mothers and carried to term.
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After being started,the cells develop into embryo.
The se embryo can then be transplanted into
surrogate mothers and carried to term.
The most successful of the cells for the process
were cumulus cells.So research was concentrated
on cells of that type.
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After being started,the cells develop into embryo.
The se embryo can then be transplanted into
surrogate mothers and carried to term.
The most successful of the cells for the process
were cumulus cells.So research was concentrated
on cells of that type.
This new technique allows or further
research into exactly how egg reprograms a
nucleus, since the cell functions and genomes of
mice are some of the best understood.
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The first cloned mammal gtgtgtDolly
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The first cloned mammal gtgtgtDolly
Dolly,the famous sheep,the first cloned
mammal. Dolly was born in the Rosilin Institue in
Scotland on February 23rd 1997.
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The first cloned mammal gtgtgtDolly
Dolly,the famous sheep,the first cloned
mammal. Dolly was born in the Rosilin Institue in
Scotland on February 23rd 1997. The birth of
Dolly began a new era for science and the
ability to copy a living organism completely.
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The first cloned mammal gtgtgtDolly
Dolly,the famous sheep,the first cloned
mammal. Dolly was born in the Rosilin Institue in
Scotland on February 23rd 1997. The birth of
Dolly began a new era for science and the
ability to copy a living organism completely. One
of the problems with cloning that happened
in Dolly is the new clone being born old.
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The first cloned mammal gtgtgtDolly
Dolly,the famous sheep,the first cloned
mammal. Dolly was born in the Rosilin Institue in
Scotland on February 23rd 1997. The birth of
Dolly began a new era for science and the
ability to copy a living organism completely. One
of the problems with cloning that happened
in Dolly is the new clone being born old. After
three years of Dolly being born, scientists are
sure that Dolly was in fact born old.
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The first cloned mammal gtgtgtDolly
Dolly,the famous sheep,the first cloned
mammal. Dolly was born in the Rosilin Institue in
Scotland on February 23rd 1997. The birth of
Dolly began a new era for science and the
ability to copy a living organism completely. One
of the problems with cloning that happened
in Dolly is the new clone being born old. After
three years of Dolly being born, scientists are
sure that Dolly was in fact born old. The
scientists researched Dollys cells and found
that many of cells were nine years old.This
has occurred because the original sheep Dolly was
cloned from six years old .
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The scientists are unable to tell what affect to
Dolly.The life of Dolly is shorted by six years.
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The scientists are unable to tell what affect to
Dolly.The life of Dolly is shorted by six
years. The scientists are unable to tell that
will be the true and just wait until Dolly has
passed on.
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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.
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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs

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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs
• Medical tragedies

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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs
• Medical tragedies
• To cure infertility

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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs
• Medical tragedies
• To cure infertility
• To find research

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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs
• Medical tragedies
• To cure infertility
• To find research
• bad parents

125
Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs
• Medical tragedies
• To cure infertility
• To find research
• bad parents
• A Childs right to be better than its parents

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Human cloning is a very hot topic in the
world.But is it have reasons to clone human
beings?
Now there are some reasons for human cloning.

• Medical breakthroughs
• Medical tragedies
• To cure infertility
• To find research
• bad parents
• A Childs right to be better than its parents
• To take a step towards immortality

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• To make a future couple financially secure

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved
• Animals and plants could be cloned for
• medical purposes

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved
• Animals and plants could be cloned for
• medical purposes
• You want your clone to lead the life that was
• meant to be yours

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved
• Animals and plants could be cloned for
• medical purposes
• You want your clone to lead the life that was
• meant to be yours
• To have a better sense of identity

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved
• Animals and plants could be cloned for
• medical purposes
• You want your clone to lead the life that was
• meant to be yours
• To have a better sense of identity
• Because so many people want cloning

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved
• Animals and plants could be cloned for
• medical purposes
• You want your clone to lead the life that was
• meant to be yours
• To have a better sense of identity
• Because so many people want cloning
• Religious Freedom

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• To make a future couple financially secure
• Because you believe in freedom
• To be a better parent
• Endangered species could be saved
• Animals and plants could be cloned for
• medical purposes
• You want your clone to lead the life that was
• meant to be yours
• To have a better sense of identity
• Because so many people want cloning
• Religious Freedom
• Because of the special relationship that twins
• have

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• Economics

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• Economics
• Gay couples

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• Economics
• Gay couples
• A cure for baldness

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• Economics
• Gay couples
• A cure for baldness
• Because the sick will demand it

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• Economics
• Gay couples
• A cure for baldness
• Because the sick will
• demand it
• Living on through a later-
• born twin

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• Economics
• Gay couples
• A cure for baldness
• Because the sick will
• demand it
• Living on through a later-
• born twin

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The benefits of human cloning
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The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation

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The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks

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The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells

147
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility

148
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility

149
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility
• Plastic,reconstructive and cosmetic surgery

150
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility
• Plastic,reconstructive and cosmetic surgery
• Breast implants

151
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility
• Plastic,reconstructive and cosmetic surgery
• Breast implants
• Defective genes

152
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility
• Plastic,reconstructive and cosmetic surgery
• Breast implants
• Defective genes
• Downs syndrome

153
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility
• Plastic,reconstructive and cosmetic surgery
• Breast implants
• Defective genes
• Downs syndrome
• Tay-Sachs disease

154
The benefits of human cloning

• Rejuvenation
• Human cloning technology could be used to
• reverse heart attacks
• There has been a breakthrough with human
• stem cells
• infertility
• Plastic,reconstructive and cosmetic surgery
• Breast implants
• Defective genes
• Downs syndrome
• Tay-Sachs disease
• Liver failure

155

• Kidney failure

156

• Kidney failure
• Leukemia

157

• Kidney failure
• Leukemia
• Cancer

158

• Kidney failure
• Leukemia
• Cancer
• Cystic fibrosis

159

• Kidney failure
• Leukemia
• Cancer
• Cystic fibrosis
• Spinal cord injury

160

• Kidney failure
• Leukemia
• Cancer
• Cystic fibrosis
• Spinal cord injury
• Testing for genetic
• disease

161
The time Line of human cloning
162
The time Line of human cloning
1885 August,Weissmann states genetic information
of a cell diminishes with each division.
163
The time Line of human cloning
1885 August,Weissmann states genetic information
of a cell diminishes with each division.
1902,Walter sutton proves Chromosomes hold
genetic information. Hans Spemann divides a
Salamander embryo in two and shows early embryo
cells retain all the genetic information
necessary to create a new organism.
164
The time Line of human cloning
1885 August,Weissmann states genetic information
of a cell diminishes with each division.
1902,Walter sutton proves Chromosomes hold
genetic information. Hans Spemann divides a
Salamander embryo in two and shows early embryo
cells retain all the genetic information
necessary to create a new organism.
1928,Hans Spemann performs first nuclear
experiment
165
1944,Oswald Avery discovers genetic
information is carried by the nucleic acids of
cells.
166
1944,Oswald Avery discovers genetic
information is carried by the nucleic acids of
cells.
1952,Briggs and King clone tadpoles.
167
1944,Oswald Avery discovers genetic
information is carried by the nucleic acids of
cells.
1952,Briggs and King clone tadpoles.
1958,F.C.Steward grows whole carrot plants from
carrot root cells.
168
1944,Oswald Avery discovers genetic
information is carried by the nucleic acids of
cells.
1952,Briggs and King clone tadpoles.
1958,F.C.Steward grows whole carrot plants from
carrot root cells.
1962,John Gurdon claims to have cloned frogs
from adult cells.
169
1963,J.B.S. Haldane coins the term clone.
1966,Establishment of the complete genetic
code. (A,T,G,C)
1967,Enzyme DNA ligase isolated.
1969,Shapiero and Beckwith isolate the first gene.
1970,First restriction enzyme isolated.
170
1973,Cohen and boyer create first recombinant DNA
organisms.
1977,Karl Illmensee claims to have create
mice with only one parent.
1979,Karl iIllmensee makes claim to have cloned
three mice.
1984, Steen Willadsen clones sheep from embryo
cells.
171
1986, Steen Willaden clones cattle from
differentiated cells.
1990,Human Genome Project begins.
1996, Dolly,the first animal cloned from adult
cells, is born.
1997,Richard Seed announces his plan to clone a
human.
172
1997,Wilmut And Campbell create Polly,a cloned
sheep with an inserted human gene.
1998,mTeruhiko wakayama creates three
generations of genetically identical cloned mice.
WHAT WILL BE THE NEXT?
173
SECTION 3 Genetic Diseases
174
3.Genetic Disease
175
3.Genetic Disease
We inherit our genes from each of our parents
we normally have two copies of each gene.
176
3.Genetic Disease
We inherit our genes from each of our parents
we normally have two copies of each gene. In
most cases,one functional copy is sufficient
to make our body behave normally.
177
3.Genetic Disease
We inherit our genes from each of our parents
we normally have two copies of each gene. In
most cases,one functional copy is sufficient
to make our body behave normally. However,it may
happen that the copies have been affected by some
mutation,so that the function of gene can no
longer operate in its normal way.
178
3.Genetic Disease
We inherit our genes from each of our parents
we normally have two copies of each gene. In
most cases,one functional copy is sufficient
to make our body behave normally. However,it may
happen that the copies have been affected by some
mutation,so that the function of gene can no
longer operate in its normal way.
179
In some other cases,a mutated
copy of gene can supersede the action of normal
part.
180
In some other cases,a mutated
copy of gene can supersede the action of normal
part.
In such situations,we are facing a genetic
disease.
181
The potential disease can be hidden by the
normal copy throughout many generation,
182
The potential disease can be hidden by the
normal copy throughout many generation, genetic
disease may jump over generations and appear
after one had thought they were no longer present.
183
The potential disease can be hidden by the
normal copy throughout many generation, genetic
disease may jump over generations and appear
after one had thought they were no
longer present. Because we have so many
genes(more than 5000 genes leading to genetic
disease), each of us is the carrier of several
putative genetic disease!!!
184
The potential disease can be hidden by the
normal copy throughout many generation, genetic
disease may jump over generations and appear
after one had thought they were no
longer present. Because we have so many
genes(more than 5000 genes leading to genetic
disease), each of us is the carrier of several
putative genetic disease!!! But our progeny is
generally unaffected,
185
The potential disease can be hidden by the
normal copy throughout many generation, genetic
disease may jump over generations and appear
after one had thought they were no
longer present. Because we have so many
genes(more than 5000 genes leading to genetic
disease), each of us is the carrier of several
putative genetic disease!!! But our progeny is
generally unaffected, it is because the
probability to find the same gene mutated in our
spouse is usually very low.
186
If we marry close cousins or intermarry often,the
present of genetic diseases will be found most
frequently.
187
If we marry close cousins or intermarry often,the
present of genetic diseases will be found most
frequently. This explain the observation that
some genetic diseases are more frequent in Asia
or Caucasians.
188
If we marry close cousins or intermarry often,the
present of genetic diseases will be found most
frequently. This explain the observation that
some genetic diseases are more frequent in Asia
or Caucasians. So the interethnic marriages are
usually much less prone to genetic diseases than
more inbred marriages.
189
How genetic disorders are inherited?
190
How genetic disorders are inherited?
191
How genetic disorders are inherited?
Dominant Disorder A Fifty-Fifty Chance
192
How genetic disorders are inherited?
Dominant Disorder A Fifty-Fifty Chance
The affected parent has a single defective
gene (D),which dominated its normal
counterpart(n). Each child has a 50 percent risk
of inheriting the faulty gene,the disorder and
even genetic diseases.
193
Recessive Disorder One Chance in four
194
Recessive Disorder One Chance in four
Both parents carry a single defective gene(d) but
are protected by the presence of a normal
gene(N),which is generally sufficient for normal
function.
195
Recessive Disorder One Chance in four
Both parents carry a single defective gene(d) but
are protected by the presence of a normal
gene(N),which is generally sufficient for normal
function. Two defective copies of the gene are
required to produce a disorder.
196
Recessive Disorder One Chance in four
Both parents carry a single defective gene(d) but
are protected by the presence of a normal
gene(N),which is generally sufficient for normal
function. Two defective copies of the gene are
required to produce a disorder. Each child has a
50 chance of being a carrier like both parents
and a 25 risk of inheriting the disorder/disease.
197
X-Linked Disorders Males Are At Risk
198
X-Linked Disorders Males Are At Risk
One normal copy(green x) of a gene on the X
chromosome is generally sufficient for normal
function.
199
X-Linked Disorders Males Are At Risk
One normal copy(green x) of a gene on the X
chromosome is generally sufficient for normal
function. Women who have a defective gene(red)
on one of their two X chromosomes are protected
by the normal copy of the same gene on the
second chromosome.
200
But men lack of this protection,since they
have one X and one Y chromosome.
201
But men lack of this protection,since they
have one X and one Y chromosome. Each male child
of a mother who carries the defect has a 50
percent risk of inheriting the faulty
gene, disorder and even genetic disease.
202
But men lack of this protection,since they
have one X and one Y chromosome. Each male child
of a mother who carries the defect has a 50
percent risk of inheriting the faulty
gene, disorder and even genetic disease. But
each female child has a 50 percent chance
of being a carrier like her mother.
203
What gene is at fault?
204
What gene is at fault?
A child(blue box) develops a currently
incurable genetic disease.
205
What gene is at fault?
A child(blue box) develops a currently
incurable genetic disease. Scientists must trace
a faulty gene to find a specific treat- ment or
preventing the disease.
206
What gene is at fault?
A child(blue box) develops a currently
incurable genetic disease. Scientists must trace
a faulty gene to find a specific treat- ment or
preventing the disease. Various clues such as a
visibly missing chromosome may reveal the genes
rough location on a chromosome.
207
What gene is at fault?
A child(blue box) develops a currently
incurable genetic disease. Scientists must trace
a faulty gene to find a specific treat- ment or
preventing the disease. Various clues such as a
visibly missing chromosome may reveal the genes
rough location on a chromosome. When there are no
such clues,researcher look for maker of disease
by comparing DNA of child to that of parents and
relatives.
208
Finally they find out which chromosome carries
the defective gene and establish the genes
general location between known makers.

209
Finally they find out which chromosome carries
the defective gene and establish the genes
general location between known makers.
Result
210
Finally they find out which chromosome carries
the defective gene and establish the genes
general location between known makers.
Result
Scientists may be able to diagnose the
disease prenatally by following the inheritance
of makers in an affected family.
211
Finally they find out which chromosome carries
the defective gene and establish the genes
general location between known makers.
Result
Scientists may be able to diagnose the
disease prenatally by following the inheritance
of makers in an affected family.
212
Finally they find out which chromosome carries
the defective gene and establish the genes
general location between known makers.
Result
Scientists may be able to diagnose the
disease prenatally by following the inheritance
of makers in an affected family. They may also
recognize healthy carrier of the faulty
gene(light blue boxes)
213
Finally they find out which chromosome carries
the defective gene and establish the genes
general location between known makers.
Result
Scientists may be able to diagnose the
disease prenatally by following the inheritance
of makers in an affected family. They may also
recognize healthy carrier of the faulty
gene(light blue boxes) The family shown here has
a recessive disease that develops only when a
child inherits the defective gene from both
parents.
214
Cancer As a Genetic Disease?
215
Cancer As a Genetic Disease?
It is believed that cancer is caused by genetic
mutations--most often by a series of
mutations, some of which may be inherited.
216
Cancer As a Genetic Disease?
It is believed that cancer is caused by genetic
mutations--most often by a series of
mutations, some of which may be
inherited. Certain normal genes involved in cell
growth, development,and differentiation can be
can be converted into cancer-causing oncogenes
by mutation.
217
Cancer As a Genetic Disease?
It is believed that cancer is caused by genetic
mutations--most often by a series of
mutations, some of which may be
inherited. Certain normal genes involved in cell
growth, development,and differentiation can be
can be converted into cancer-causing oncogenes
by mutation. Other genes that normally prevent
the uncontrolled growth of cells can produce
cancer if they are knocked out by genetic
mutations.
218
Cancer As a Genetic Disease?
It is believed that cancer is caused by genetic
mutations--most often by a series of
mutations, some of which may be
inherited. Certain normal genes involved in cell
growth, development,and differentiation can be
can be converted into cancer-causing oncogenes
by mutation. Other genes that normally prevent
the uncontrolled growth of cells can produce
cancer if they are knocked out by genetic
mutations. Single mutations are generally not
sufficient to cause cancer but they produce
changes that may predispose cells to malignant
growth.
219
Additional mutations in other genes caused by
damage from the environment continue the cells
to malignant transformation.
220
Additional mutations in other genes caused by
damage from the environment continue the cells
to malignant transformation. So cancer is a
multi-step process involving the interaction
between genes and their environment.
221
Additional mutations in other genes caused by
damage from the environment continue the cells
to malignant transformation. So cancer is a
multi-step process involving the interaction
between genes and their environment. To test the
hypothesis,researchers have put a variety of
oncogenes into mice,using promoters to direct the
genes to specific tissues.
222
Additional mutations in other genes caused by
damage from the environment continue the cells
to malignant transformation. So cancer is a
multi-step process involving the interaction
between genes and their environment. To test the
hypothesis,researchers have put a variety of
oncogenes into mice,using promoters to direct the
genes to specific tissues. In this way,animals
that reliably develop breast and lymph cancers.
223
Can the protein or gene be replaced?
224
Can the protein or gene be replaced?
225
Can the protein or gene be replaced?
To make up for the genetic error,scientists may
try to replace a missing or ineffective protein
with a drug or with the normal protein.
226
Can the protein or gene be replaced?
To make up for the genetic error,scientists may
try to replace a missing or ineffective protein
with a drug or with the normal protein. Such
experiments are usually carried out first
in cultured cells in laboratory,then in
animals ,and finally in humans.
227
Another option is gene therapy.
228
Another option is gene therapy. Some scientists
infectthe defective cells with a virus into
which they have inserted normal genes.
229
Another option is gene therapy. Some scientists
infectthe defective cells with a virus into
which they have inserted normal genes. Others use
non-viral methods or even inject DNA directly
into cell.
230
Another option is gene therapy. Some scientists
infectthe defective cells with a virus into
which they have inserted normal genes. Others use
non-viral methods or even inject DNA directly
into cell. Experiments that work in
cultured cells are tried in animals and then in
humans.
231
Another option is gene therapy. Some scientists
infectthe defective cells with a virus into
which they have inserted normal genes. Others use
non-viral methods or even inject DNA directly
into cell. Experiments that work in
cultured cells are tried in animals and then in
humans. For example,a patients bone-marrow
cells may be removed,treated with normal
genes,and returned to the patient.
232
Result
233
Result
Treatments are being developed for some
genetic disease.
234
Result
Treatments are being developed for some
genetic disease. People will always carry genetic
defects,but in the future,prevention and
treatment will vastly reduce suffering from
genetic diseases.
235
The useful websites for GM foods
http//www.who.int/fsf/
http//www.fao.org/
http//www.anzfa.gov.au/
http//www.royalsoc.ac.uk/
http//www.codexalimentarius.net/
The Useful websites for cloning
http//www.clonerights.com/
http//home.cfl.rr.com/chaosdriven/index.html
http//thunder.prohosting.com/cloning/humanclonin
g.html
http//www.aia-zavos.com/
http//www.roslinbiocentre.co.uk/
http//www.hawaii.edu/ur/News_Releases/NR_July98/c
loning.html
236
The useful websites for genetic diseases
http//www.hhmi.org/
http//www.cuhk.edu.hk/rtao/research/rhl/heart.htm
237
The End