Motivation Models

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Motivation Models

• General Principles
• Early Models
• Contemporary Models (8 in all)
• How they can be used in the workplace

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General Principles of Work Motivation

• People have different needs that require
  different incentives
• Rewards are usually more powerful than
  punishments
• Instrinsic rewards usually more powerful than
  extrinsic ones (as long as basic needs are met
  first)
• Goals can be a powerful tool
• Timing of rewards is important
• Rewards are seen as fair/unfair only in
  comparison to others
• What you do on the job is, often, more important
  than the reward

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Early Models

• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
• 1. Physiological Needs
• 2. Safety Needs
• 3. Social Needs
• 4. Esteem Needs
• 5. Self-Actualization
• People start with lowest level and move up when
  satisfy need
• 2. Alderfers ERG Theory
• 3 Levels- Existence, Relatedness, Growth
• Allows for refocus on lower levels if upward
  striving is frustrated

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3. Two-Factor Model

• Predictors of Job Satisfaction and Job
  Dissatisfaction are Different
• Hygiene Factors-
• if not present lead to dissatisfaction
• if present causes NONdissatisfaction
• include pay, security, conditions external to job
• Motivators-
• if not present stuck in NONsatisfaction
• if present lead to satisfaction
• include growth, recognition, internal to job

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Todays Plan

• Goal-Setting
• Reinforcement Theory
• Equity Justice in Reward Systems

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4. Reinforcement Theory

• People are motivated to perform/avoid behaviors
  based on expected outcomes, through their own
  experiences (operant conditioning) or others
  (social learning).
• 3 Types of Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcement- The performance of a
  desired behavior is reinforced with a positive
  consequence
• Punishment- Negative consequence introduced after
  undesired behavior
• Extinction- No reinforcement for behavior

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Timing of Rewards
Reinforcement Schedules
Unpredictable (variable)- Performance Based (slot
machine, mystery shopper)
Predictable (fixed)- Performance Based (soda
machine, piece-rate pay)
Predictable (fixed)- Time Based (salary, exams,
yearly bonus)
Unpredictable (variable)- Time Based (pop quiz,
spot check)
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Application of Reinforcement Theory

• Shaping higher levels of performance
• Progressive discipline
• Employee recognition rewards
• Training and learning programs
• Remember, emphasizing extrinsic rewards to the
  point that the task has little intrinsic value
  can de-motivate (cognitive evaluation theory)

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5. Goal-Setting Theory

• People are motivated to perform, develop better
  strategies, and focus more on a task when given
  goals that
• Are specific and challenging
• Are tied to something they value
• They can commit to
• Publicly stated goal
• Participation
• Managers should
• Mutually set challenging, specific goals
• Provide feedback reinforcement
• Provide resources valued rewards
• Build employees self-efficacy

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Application of Goal-Setting

• Management By Objectives (MBO)
• Set overall org objectives and, through
  participative decision-making, translate them
  down through the company into
• Specific, difficult goals, with
• specific time frames
• specific measures
• feedback
• reinforcement

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6. Expectancy Theory

• People choose behaviors and effort levels based
  on
• Effort-Performance Beliefs- Will my effort lead
  to successful performance (E P)?
• Performance-Reward Beliefs- Will my successful
  performance lead to an outcome (P O)?
• Reward-Personal Goal Beliefs- Is this reward
  important for my personal goals is it something
  I value (O G)?

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Expectancy Theory

• Using expectancy theory to diagnose cause of low
  motivation
• Do employees believe that they can succeed on
  their tasks?
• remember Opportunity to Perform
• Do employees believe that performance will lead
  to the outcome?
• Do employees value that outcome?

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7. Equity Theory

• Two Key Comparisons
• Compare the outcomes you get out of an
  arrangement with the Inputs you put in
• Outcome/Input Ratio
• 2. Compare the results of your Outcome/Input
  Ratio with the Outcome/Input Ratios of others

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Three Questions from Equity Theory

• Who do you compare O/I ratios with?
• What is the Source of Inequity?
• Procedural or Distributive
• What do you do when perceive inequity?
• Work to increase outcomes/reduce inputs
• Reduce others outcomes
• Withdraw (physically or psychologically)
• Rationalize Choose different comparison other

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Procedural Justice

• Perceived fairness of the process by which
  decisions are made and rewards are distributed
• Can be enhanced by
• Allowing true input and participation
• Making decisions
• Consistently Without personal bias
• Based on accurate info That are correctable
• Open communication
• Sincere Personal Sensitivity
• Providing data to back up why decision was made
• Does not obviate the effect of outcomes, but are
  important for long-term attitudes

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5 Core Job Characteristics

• Skill Variety- do you carry out different tasks
  or use different skills?
• Task Identity- can you see a whole, complete
  piece of work as a result of your efforts?
• Task Significance- do you see how your work has
  affected others?
• Autonomy- do you have the freedom to decide how
  to schedule your own work and carry it out?
• Feedback- do you get information about how well
  you are doing?

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Job Characteristics Model
Core Job Characteristics
Critical Psychological States
Outcomes
Skill Variety
Meaningfulness
Intrinsic Motivation
Task Identity
Responsibility
Task Signif.
Also satisfaction, performance
Autonomy
Knowledge of Results
Feedback
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Job Characteristics Model

• The 5 CJCs elicit 3 Critical Psychological
  States
• Meaningfulness, Responsibility, Knowledge of
  Results
• In turn, the CPS lead to higher intrinsic
  motivation, satisfaction, and performance
• Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) can diagnose low
  motivation derive Motivation Potential Score
  (MPS)

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Applications of JCM

• Job Enlargement
• Add variety of tasks
• Job Enrichment
• Add tasks commonly performed by managers
• Autonomy in planning, execution and evaluation of
  work
• Job Rotation (cross-training)
• Adds variety meaningfulness
• Opportunities for growth and development
• Organizational flexibility
• BUT- costs, short-term productivity?
• Feedback
• Creating direct client contact
• Extensive performance and developmental feedback

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Implications from Motivation Theories

• Define what is meant by desired performance
  through clear goals and standards
• Offer rewards that are tailored to employee
  values
• Link rewards to desired behaviors
• Link individual goals and incentives to
  organizational priorities
• Allocate rewards openly and fairly
• Provide appropriate performance feedback
• Ensure competence through TD, resources
• Build intrinsic and non-monetary rewards into job
  assignments

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Applications of Motivation Models

• Employee Involvement Programs
• Participative management
• Becomes part of ones job responsibilities
• Representative participation
• Councils, boards
• Task forces (quality circles)
• Temporary teams to investigate problems
• Employee stock ownership (ESOP)
• Literal ownership, need psychological ownership
  too

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Applications of Motivation Models

• Variable Pay Programs
• Portion of employee pay based on measure of
  individual/group/org performance (expectancy
  theory)
• Piece-Rate Pay
• Pay per unit produced
• Profit-Sharing
• Portion of profits distributed to employees
• Gainsharing
• Portion of gains shared with the group
  responsible
• Skill-Based Pay
• Pay based on skills or of jobs one can do

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Group Decision Making

• Benefits
• Diversity of Viewpoints
• Accuracy, Creativity, More Alternatives Generated
• Motivation Satisfaction
• May correct for individual biases
• Consensus process
• leads to better examination/critique of
  alternatives
• Buy-in due to participation

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Group Decision Making

• Problems
• Time-Consuming
• Possibility of Self-Censorship due to conformity
  peer pressure

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Decision-Tree Model(Vroom Yetton)

• Choose decision-making style based on situation
  and followers
• Decision-Making Styles-
• Authoritarian
• Consultative
• Group
• Decision Effectiveness Criteria-
• Timeliness
• Quality
• Acceptability

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Myers-Briggs and teams

• The most successful teams usually have a good mix
  of all MBTI types
• Based on your combination
• What blind spots may your team have?
• What are potential areas of conflict
• What can you do to prevent these troubles

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Important Group Characteristics

• Roles
• Expected behavior patterns for a person in a
  particular situation
• Group Norms
• Acceptable standard for behavior shared by a
  group
• Status
• Of groups and within groups
• Size
• Motivation Loss Social Loafing Effect,
  Free-Rider Effect, Sucker Effect
• Cohesiveness
• Degree to which team members identify with the
  team

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Cohesiveness

• Refers to attractive groups in which members
  value their membership and are more likely to
  accept group norms. Can be increased by
• Increased interactions
• Common attitudes and values
• Superordinate goal
• A common enemy and Isolation
• Barriers to entry
• Resolutions of differences
• Success
• Teambuilding

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Downside of Cohesion??

• Usually, but not always a good thing. Amplifies
  performance of group norms, and can lead to
• Groupthink When members of a highly cohesive
  group fail to critically evaluate ideas in their
  drive for consensus.
• Resistance to new ideas, rationalization
• Reject alternatives Stereotype outsiders
• Pressure to conform
• Dissenters stay quiet
• Illusion of unanimity
• Ways to Avoid
• Group Norms, Culture, Inter-Group Communication,
  Brainstorming, Secret Votes, Devils Advocates

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2 Models of Group Development

• Tuckmans 5 Stage Model
• Forming
• Storming
• Norming
• Performing
• Adjourning

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2 Models of Group Development

• 2. Gersicks Punctuated Equilibrium Model
• Long stretches of inertia punctuated by bursts of
  change
• Time demands influence team process
• Deadlines, halfway points

transition
Performance level
Performance
transition
Performance level
transition
time
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Creating Effective Teams

• Context
• Adequate resources
• Leadership
• Proper role structure
• Climate of trust
• Good performance evaluation and reward systems
• Do your class teams have these 5 elements?

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Creating Effective Teams

• Composition
• Proper MIX of abilities and personalities
• Appropriate roles
• Diversity of viewpoints, backgrounds
• Appropriate size
• Flexible attitudes
• Teams for everyone???

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Creating Effective Teams

• Team Process How team members get along,
  communicate and work together
• Overarching common purpose
• Specific goals
• Confidence in the team
• Appropriate levels of conflict
• Work Design remember JCM

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Communication

• Its not what you say, its what they hear

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The Communication Process

• The exchange of info using a shared set of
  symbols
• A SENDER ENCODES a MESSAGE
• Which is transmitted through a CHANNEL
• The RECEIVER DECODES that MESSAGE
• And provides FEEDBACK
• NOISE distorts the communication process

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Barriers to Communication

• Filtering for a favorable reaction
• Selective perception
• Overload
• Emotions
• Language use, jargon
• Conflicting non-verbal cues
• Communication apprehension
• Cultural differences
• Physical distractions

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Tactics to Improve Communication

• Sender
• Gain/Practice communication skills
• Monitor your emotional state
• Match message to receiver
• Avoid jargon
• Attune to/use feedback
• Seek out feedback from multiple sources
• Understand receivers emotions and your
  relationship with them

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Tactics to Improve Communication

• As a Receiver, try Active Listening techniques
• Create safe environment
• Listen for both words and feelings
• Monitor your own and others non-verbals
• Suspend initial judgment
• Pause to think and react before responding
• Rephrase the sent message
• Pay attention to context
• Ask follow-up questions at end

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Tactics to Improve Communication

• Choosing channels with the appropriate richness
  level (amount of info that can be communicated)
• High Richness channels allow real-time, two-way,
  verbal and non-verbal communication
• Important and complicated messages need rich
  channels
• Routine communication can have less rich channels

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Tactics to Improve Communication

• Attuning to Non-Verbal Communication
• Body Language
• Vocal Tones
• Surroundings
• Physical Appearance
• Actions
• Avoid Conflicting Signals
• Unintentional Non-verbals
• Avoid blatant contradictions
• Understand cultural differences