Chapter 10: Motivation

1
Chapter 9Motivation and Emotion
2
Defining Motivation

• Motivation involves goal-directed behavior
  (intentional, not random)
• There are a number of different theories that
  attempt to explain goal-directed behavior.
• Drive theories emphasize the importance of
  reducing physiological tension as a motivator of
  behavior (think we eat because we feel hungry)
• Incentive theories emphasize the importance of
  external reward in motivation behaviors.
• Evolutionary theories assert that human motives
  are products of evolutionary processes.

3
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating Biological
Factors

• In the early 1900s, 1 (Full name) and Washburn
  hypothesized that there is an association between
  2 (2 words) and the experience of 3 However
  we know now that people who have their stomachs
  removed still experience hunger. This
  realization led to more complicated theories
  focusing on the brain, 4 (3 words) and
  digestive factors, and hormones.
• Research in the 40s and 50s showed that the
  hypothalamus, particularly two areas called the
  5 (2 words) (LH) and the 6 (2 words) of the
  hypothalamus (VMH), are important in hunger. The
  LH was thought to be the 7 center, while the
  VMH was thought to control the ability to
  recognize 8 (fullness). Subsequent research
  indicated that the dual centered model was an
  oversimplified picture, although the LH and VMH
  are part of the hunger circuit, they are not the
  key elements.
• The 9 nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently
  been implicated as another influential part of
  the hunger circuit.

4
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating Biological
Factors 2

• Other research has focused on the role of blood
  glucose and digestive regulation on hunger.
  Manipulations that 10 when blood glucose level
  can 11 hunger (and vice versa).
• 12 (name) theory proposed that fluctuations in
  blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by
  13 neurons sensitive to glucose in the
  surrounding fluid. It appears likely that hunger
  is regulated , in part, through glucostatic
  mechanisms.
• Hormones circulating in the blood also appear to
  be related to hunger. Insulin, secreted by the
  pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood
  glucose. Normal secretion of insulin is
  associated with 14 hunger. The mere sight and
  15 of food has been shown to increase 16
  secretion.
• Recently, a new hormone, 17 , has been
  discovered to be released from fat cells into the
  bloodstream. Leptin provides the hypothalamus
  with information about the bodys 18 stores in
  the body. When fat stores are high feeling of
  hunger diminish.

5
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating
Environmental Factors

• Clearly, hunger is related to biology however,
  it is also regulated by environmental factors
  like (1) the availability/ palatability of food
  (2) 19 (2 words) habits and (3) stress.
• Hunger can also be triggered by exposure to
  environmental cues that have been associated with
  20 .(such as appearance or odor of food, effort
  required to eat a particular food, etc).
  Research shows that these external cues influence
  eating behavior to some extent, beyond biological
  hunger.
• Observational learning appears to play a part in
  what we like to eat. To a large degree food
  preferences are a matter of 21 . Studies show
  that people like foods that are familiar to them.
  (Even, dog meat is a delicacy in some parts of
  the world!) Learning also appears to influence
  when and how much people eat.
• Finally, studies have show that 22 (arousal)
  leads to 23 eating with many people. Some
  research suggests that stress induced eating is
  especially common among 24 dieters.

6
The Human Sexual Response

• William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted
  groundbreaking research in the 1960s using 25
  recording devices to monitor the 26 changes of
  volunteers engaging in sexual activity. They
  outlined 27 () stages in the sexual response
  cycle.
• The excitement phase is the initial arousal,
  which escalates rapidly. Muscle tension,
  respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure
  28 quickly. Also 29 , the engorgement of blood
  vessels occurs in the genitals, occurs.
• The plateau phase occurs when physiological
  arousal continues to build, but at a 30 pace.
• The orgasm phase occurs when sexual arousal
  reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a
  series of muscular contractions that pulsate
  through the 31 area. The subjective experience
  of orgasm is very similar for men and women,
  although women can more than 32 orgasm in a
  brief period of time. On the other hand, they are
  more likely to engage in intercourse without
  experiencing an orgasm.
• The resolution phase is characterized by sexual
  arousal that gradually 33 . Men experience a
  refractory period after orgasm, when they are
  largely 34 to further stimulation. This may
  last from a few minutes to a few hours and 35
  with age.

7
The Mystery of Sexual Orientation

• 36 (2 words) refers to a persons preference for
  emotional and sexual relationships with
  individuals of the same sex (homosexuality), the
  other sex (heterosexuality), or either sex
  (bisexuality).
• Kinsey and others have concluded that
  homosexuality and heterosexuality are 37 (2
  words) on a continuum.
• Data on the prevalence of homosexuality suggests
  that 38 ( range) of the population could
  reasonably characterized as homosexual.
• Many environmental theories explaining
  homosexuality have been put forth historically.
• Freud held that a person must identify with a
  strong same sexed parent or a homosexual
  orientation may develop.
• 39 theorists assert that homosexuality is a
  learned preference acquired when same-sex stimuli
  hve been paired with sexual arousal (learned
  through conditioning.)
• Extensive research have 40 to support either
  theory.
• What has been found is that most men and women
  with homosexual orientations can trace their
  leanings back to early childhood, suggesting that
  the roots of homosexuality are more 41 than
  environmental.

8
Motivation

• 42 motivation involves the need to excel,
  especially in competition with others. This
  motive involves the need to master _43_
  challenges and meet 44 standards of excellence.
• People who are relatively high in the need for
  achievement work harder and more persistently,
  they tend to 45 gratification well and to
  pursue competitive careers.
• Achievement (and affiliative) motivational needs
  are generally measured using the 46 (3 words), a
  projective test which requires a subject to write
  or tell stories about what is happening in
  pictures of people in ambiguous scenes.
• 47 factors have been shown to influence
  achievement strivings, causing it to increase
  when the probability of success and the incentive
  value of success are high. When the probability
  and incentive values are weighed together, 48
  challenging tasks seem to offer the best value.

9
The Elements of Emotional Experience

• The 49 component of emotion involves subjective
  conscious experience that have an evaluative
  aspectpeoples 50 appraisals of events are key
  determinants in emotional experience.
• Much of the physiological arousal associated with
  emotion occurs through the actions of the 51
  nervous system. This nervous system is
  responsible for the highly emotional 52
  -or-flight response. The involuntary nature of
  autonomic response is the reason that measures of
  autonomic activity like the GSR ( 53 (3 words))
  or polygraph can be used to detect whether
  someone is uncomfortable with what they are
  telling you (although polygraph measures are not
  all that accurate).
• In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional
  neural circuit, with a particularly central
  role played by a structure called the 54 .
• Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body
  language and facial expressions. Research
  indicates considerable cross-cultural
  similarities in the ability to differentiate
  facial expressions of emotion. Cross-cultural
  similarities have also been found in the
  cognitive and behavioral components, although
  display rules, or norms for regulating
  appropriate expression of emotion vary from
  culture to culture.

10
Theories of Emotion

• The 55(2 words) theory of emotion holds that you
  see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel
  afraid because your pulse is racing (emphasis on
  the physiological determinants of emotion).
• The 56 (2 words) theory holds that you see a
  snake, the information is sent to the thalamus,
  which relays the signals simultaneously to the
  cortex and to the autonomic nervous system.
• According to Schacter Singer, the experiences
  of emotion depends on 57 (2 words) first, then
  the cognitive 58 of that arousal.
• Darwin viewed emotions as a product of 59 that
  evolved because they had 60 value.
• Evolutionary theories of emotion assume that
  emotions are 61 reactions that require little
  cognitive interpretation. Robert Plutchik (1984,
  1993) has devised a model of how primary emotions
  blend together to form secondary emotions.

11
Happiness

• Research on happiness indicates that commonsense
  notions about what makes people happy are largely
  incorrect.
• Income (money), 62 , parenthood, intelligence,
  and attractiveness are largely uncorrelated with
  happiness (do not predict).
• Physical health, good social relationships and ,
  63 , are modestly correlated with happiness.
• Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and 64 are
  the only factors shown to be strongly predictive
  of happiness.
• Research indicates that 65 feelings rather than
  66 reality is what is important in deciding
  happiness.