Job Analysis: Outline

1
Job Analysis Outline

• Overview and Uses of Job Analysis
• General Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data
• Specific Methods of Job Analysis
• Job Evaluation

2
Job Analysis Defined
? The systematic study of the tasks, duties,
and responsibilities of a job and the
qualities needed to perform it. ? A collection
of methods for understanding What a job consists
of and what is required in order to perform the
job.
3
Overview and Uses of Job Analysis

• Job Description - a detailed description of job
  tasks, procedures, and responsibilities, the
  tools and equipment used, and the end product or
  service.
• Job Specification - a statement of the knowledge,
  skills, abilities, and other human attributes
  (e.g., personality, competencies).

4
General Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data

• Interviewing and Conducting Focus Groups
• Observation and Participation
• Surveys
• Job Diaries.

5
Job Analysis Interviewing Individuals and Groups

• Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) incumbents,
  supervisors, subordinates, customers
• Open-ended or structured
• Individual or Group Interviews
• Advantages detailed information, allows for
  flexibility in data collection
• Disadvantages incumbents may misrepresent their
  job, can be time consuming and expensive.

6
Tips for Job Analysis Interviewing

• Be prepared for the interview. Design questions
  ahead of time and do some homework on the job.
• Always explain to the interviewee who you are and
  why you are there.
• Show a sincere interest in the interviewee and
  his or her job.
• Do not try to tell the interviewee how to do the
  job.
• Try to talk to interviewees in their own
  language.
• Encourage interviewees to speak but keep the
  interview on-track.

7
Job Analysis Observation and Participation

• Ideally, one should observe a different
  incumbents on select (representative) occasions.
• Observation works best with jobs involving manual
  operations, repetitive tasks, or other easily
  seen activities.
• Advantages good information about job context,
  experiencing what it takes to do the job.
• Disadvantages Hawthorne effect, time consuming
  and expensive, sometimes impractical.

8
Job Analysis Existing Data

• Training manuals (or videos), existing job
  analyses, job descriptions, performance appraisal
  instruments
• Advantages you dont have to hunt down
  information, good preliminary information to plan
  further data collection efforts
• Disadvantages information may not pertain to the
  particular job you are analyzing

9
Job Analysis Survey Methods

• Develop a questionnaire pertaining to relevant
  KSAOs and/or tasks and administer to a large
  number of job incumbents
• Ratings may be gathered with regard to task
  difficulty, relative amount of time spent on
  task, criticality of error, importance for job
  success
• Advantages time is saved, relatively
  inexpensive, assesses many perspectives
• Disadvantage incumbents may misrepresent job,
  fatigue (from too many items) may limit the
  validity of responses

10
Specific Job Analysis Techniques

• Critical Incidents Technique (CIT)
• Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
• Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

11
Critical Incidents Technique

• A worker-oriented method developed by Flanagan
  (1954)
• Worker oriented method of job analysis
• Focuses on examples of particularly
  successful/unsuccessful on-the-job behaviors
• Basic Procedure
• SMEs are gathered to provide as many examples as
  possible.
• Incidents are sorted into categories that make
  sense

12
Critical Incidents Technique

• Advantages well suited for performance appraisal
• Disadvantages focuses on extreme behaviors
  rather than typical behaviors, not applied very
  systematically

13
Functional Job Analysis

• A job-oriented method developed by Department of
  Labor in the 1930s and later refined by Sydney
  Fine
• Uses a variety of general methods of job analysis
  (e.g., interview, survey, observation)
• The Dictionary of Occupational Titles was created
  with FJA
• All jobs considered in 3 main dimensions
• Data information, knowledge, concepts
• People amount and type of contact with people
• Things inanimate objects used on the job (MTEWA)

14
Functional Job Analysis

• Basic Procedure
• Break job down into tasks
• Rate each task in terms of Data, People, and
  Things
• Sum Scores to get a total composite on each
  dimension
• Advantages comprehensive and effective, suitable
  for a wide variety of purposes
• Disadvantage can be time-consuming and expensive

15
Position Analysis Questionnaire

• A worker-oriented method developed by McCormick
  and associates at Purdue U.
• Standardized questioning containing 194 job
  elements referring to a specific aspect of work
  behavior (e.g., use of measuring devices)
• SMEs rate the relevance of the job elements that
  are organized into six categories (see textbook,
  p. 68)

16
Position Analysis Questionnaire

• Advantages can be used for any job, good method
  for comparing jobs or classifying jobs,
  relatively inexpensive and easy to use
• Disadvantages people may misrepresent their job,
  can take a lot of time to administer, must be
  interpreted at Purdue U., requires a high reading
  level

17
Limiting Error/Bias in Job Analysis

• Use multiple sources of information about the job
• Use more than one trained and experienced
  analyst, if possible
• Give analysts enough time to do the job right
• Check and recheck information and results

18
Job Evaluation

• An assessment of the relative value of jobs to
  determine appropriate compensation.
• A process that allows one to determine the
  financial worth of a job
• Setting wages
• Determining comparable worth (whether jobs that
  require equivalent KSAOs are compensated equally)

19
A Method of Job Evaluation

• The Point System
• Determine compensable factors - important and
  common work factors across jobs used to determine
  appropriate compensation (e.g., physical demands,
  responsibility, specialized knowledge, etc.)
• Assign each job a score on each compensable
  factor.
• Total scores on compensable factors and convert
  into dollar amounts.

20
A Method of Job Evaluation

• The Point System
• Market value of labor also may come into play
  (supply and demand).
• A wage trend line can be created by plotting
  point totals against current wages.
• When wage discrepancy is determined, the
  underpaid is usually given a raise.
• Exceptioning is the practice of ignoring pay
  discrepancies between particular jobs possessing
  equivalent duties and responsibilities.

21
Employee Recruitment and Selection

• Recruitment
• Overview
• General Considerations
• Realistic Job Preview
• Selection
• Overview
• Deciding Whether a Selection Test is Useful
• Specific Selection Tests

22
Employee Recruitment

• The process by which organizations attract
  potential workers to apply to jobs.
• Attracting the most suitable and highly qualified
  applicants as quickly and cheaply as possible so
  that the applicant pool is large enough to be
  selective.
• The success of recruitment efforts greatly
  determine whether selection processes will be
  effective.

23
Employee Recruitment

• 4 Main Factors to Consider
• Cost
• Time-table
• Necessity of attracting specific groups
• Likelihood that the person hired will perform
  well and not turnover

24
Employee Recruitment

• Recruitment Sources
• ads
• college recruitment/job fairs
• unsolicited write-ins
• walk-ins
• company transfer and promotion
• private employment agencies
• executive search firms
• employee referrals/word of mouth

25
Employee Recruitment

• Affirmative Action Plan - a formal, written plan
  for reducing the under-representation of minority
  groups in an organization.
• Under-representation - a marked discrepancy
  between the number of people in the labor force
  who are available for a job and the number who
  are actually employed.
• Chilling Effect - an organization with a
  reputation for being uninterested toward certain
  groups of potential employees.

26
Employee Recruitment
27
Employee Recruitment
Recruitment Planning Graph
Leads
Invites
Interviews
of People
Offers
Hires
of Days
28
Employee Recruitment

• In an effort to recruit applicants, organizations
  sometimes misrepresent jobs to make them seem
  more appealing than they are
• Advantage - improves the selection ratio ( of
  positions to be filled/ of applicants)
• Disadvantages
• Turnover
• Time and money expended to screen applicants.
• Public relations problems

29
Employee Recruitment

• Parkinson (1957) - Feature the negative aspects
  of the job and then only those people who are
  really suited to the job will apply
• Advantages
• Demands of the screening process are reduced
• People who do apply will be well suited
• Disadvantages
• Few or no people may apply and therefore one
  cannot be selective
• People discouraged may have been well suited for
  the job

30
Employee Recruitment

• The Realistic Job Preview (RJP)
• Wanous (1980)
• an honest presentation of the prospective job
  and the organization given to applicants
• may take many different forms a brochure, ad,
  oral presentation, site visit, videotape of the
  representative elements of the job

31
Employee Recruitment
Origins of RJP Wanous interviewed new
recruits and examined trends in their job
satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
Job Entrance
Decision to Take Job
Reality Shock Phase
Time
32
Employee Recruitment

• Wanous suggested that RJPs work because they are
  a vaccination of expectations, that lead to
• self-selection
• decreased anticipated job satisfaction
• increased commitment to the organization
• increased tenure and decreased turnover
• performance and job satisfaction increased as a
  result of role clarity

33
Employee Recruitment

• Premack and Wanous (1985) conducted a
  meta-analysis of 21 studies of RJP (N 6000)
• Six Main Results
• RJPs reduce turnover
• RJPs increase performance
• RJPs lower expectations
• RJPs increase self-selection
• RJPs increase organizational commitment
• RJPs increase job satisfaction

34
Employee Recruitment

• Premack and Wanous (1985) meta-analysis
• Boundary Conditions of RJP Effectiveness
• RJP most likely to work when candidates have
  unrealistic expectations
• Applicants must have a choice of accepting the
  job or not
• Job must have some negative aspects that are
  likely to impact on the worker. The more negative
  aspects of the job, the greater the effectiveness
  of RJP

35
Employee Selection

• The process of choosing applicants for employment
• The purpose of employee selection processes are
  to increase productivity and save money by hiring
  the best people for the job
• How do you go about selecting the best
  applicants?
• Background Information
• Selection Tests (e.g., paper and pencil tests,
  interviews, work samples)

36
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Reliability - the consistency of a measurement
  instrument or its stability over time
• Test-retest reliability - stability over time,
  correlation between test scores of the same
  individuals at two different points in time
• Internal consistency - stability across items of
  a selection test, Cronbachs Alpha, average of
  all possible split-half correlations

37
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Reliability
• Parallel forms - stability across different
  versions of a selection test, correlation between
  test scores of the same individuals using two
  different versions of the selection test
• Validity - concept referring to the accuracy of a
  measurement instrument
• The extent to which a selection test is measuring
  what it is supposed to measure

38
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• The Difference Between Reliability and Validity
• ACME Intelligence Test
• 1. I am smart. T F
• 2. I am really smart. T F
• 3. I was smart yesterday. T F
• 4. I will be smart tomorrow. T F
• 5. I am not stupid. T F

39
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Validity - Reliability is a necessary but not a
  sufficient condition for reliability. Reliability
  sets the upper bound of validity
• Content Validity - The extent to which the
  content of the test is representative of what you
  are trying to measure (i.e., job performance)
• Job analysis is essential for establishing
  content validity
• Typically, determined via expert judgement

40
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Face Validity - the extent to which a test
  appears to measure what it should be measuring
  (from the point of view of a non-expert taking
  the test)
• Applicants may feel they have been treated
  unfairly when a test lacks face validity which
  may result in negative public relations and
  litigation
• Although face validity is desirable, it is not
  sufficient evidence of the usefulness of a test,
  by itself

41
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Criterion-related validity - the relationship
  between test scores and some job-related
  criterion (e.g., job performance, turnover, etc.)
• The correlation between a selection test and a
  criterion is often referred to as the validity
  coefficient
• Predictive Validity - follow-up method
• Concurrent Validity - present-employee method

42
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Construct Validity - A judgement based on all
  available data as to whether the test measures
  what it is supposed to measure
• Utility - How much money the test is worth to the
  organization. Consists of
• Costs associated with administering and using the
  test
• Benefits derived by basing decisions on the test

43
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Utility is affected by
• Criterion-related validity
• Selection ratio
• Testing costs
• Relative worth or good vs. poor performers (SDY)
• Average tenure of workers in the company
• Utility Analysis - a mathematical procedure of
  combining these considerations of utility

44
Deciding whether a selection test is useful

• Adverse Impact and Test Bias - whether a test is
  fair for some group(s)of applicants (majority
  members) but unfair for members of some other
  group(s) of applicants (minority members)
• Adverse impact occurs when the selection ratio
  for a minority group is considerably lower than
  the selection ratio of the majority group
• Valid tests can result in adverse impact

45
Specific Selection Tests

• Biodata
• Cognitive Ability Tests
• Personality Tests
• Integrity Tests
• Physical Agility Tests
• Job Knowledge Tests
• Work Simulations
• Job Interviews
• Assessment Centers

46
Biodata

• Background information and personal
  characteristics that can be used in employee
  selection.
• AKA Biographic Information Blank, Weighted
  Information Blank
• An application blank containing questions that
  research has shown to measure the difference
  between successful and unsuccessful performers on
  a job.

47
Biodata

• Advantages
• Predictive of supervisor ratings, absenteeism,
  employee theft, sales, tenure, and organizational
  profit
• Easy to use, quickly administered, inexpensive
• Disadvantages
• Dustbowl empiricism/statistical opportunism
• Validity may not be stable over time
• Bias, invasiveness, faking

48
Cognitive Ability Tests

• General Mental Ability (g) - the singular,
  primary basis of intelligence
• Tests typically include questions assessing
• Verbal ability
• Quantitative ability
• Logic/Reasoning
• Many researchers believe it is the single most
  diagnostic predictor of future job performance.

49
Cognitive Ability Tests

• Advantages
• Criterion-related validity typically ranges
  between .4 and .6
• Some tests are very easy to administer
• Not fakable
• Disadvantages
• Adverse impact

50
Personality Tests

• Personality A pattern of characteristic
  thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist
  over time and situations and distinguishes one
  person from another.
• Tests of Psychopathology (MMPI-2, Thematic
  Aptitude Test)
• Tests of Normal Personality (NEO, Hogan
  Personality Inventory, 16 PF)
• The Big Five Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness
  to Experience, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness

51
Personality Tests

• Advantages
• Incremental Validity
• Predict job performance even after you control
  for cognitive ability -- it compliments cognitive
  ability
• Disadvantages
• Faking
• Face Validity

52
Integrity Tests

• Integrity tests are measures of honest or
  dishonest attitudes and/or behaviors.
• Overt integrity tests - the applicant clearly
  understands that the intent is to assess
  integrity.
• Personality-based integrity tests - make no
  reference to theft.
• Assess personality traits that have been found to
  be predictive of theft conscientiousness and
  emotional stability.

53
Integrity Tests

• Advantages
• Ones, Viswesvaran, and Schmidt (1998)
  meta-analysis found integrity tests predict
  theft, disciplinary problems, and absenteeism.
• Disadvantages
• Adverse impact
• Can result in poor public relations

54
Physical Agility Tests

• Physical Agility Tests are often used for jobs
  that require physical strength and stamina, such
  as police officer, firefighter, and lifeguard.
• Basic physical abilities include
• dynamic strength (ie., strength requiring
  repetitions)
• trunk strength (e.g., stooping and bending over)
• explosive strength (e.g., jumping)
• static strength (i.e., strength not requiring
  repetitions)
• stamina (i.e., ability to perform efficiently
  over long periods of time)
• gross body coordination (i.e., balance)

55
Physical Agility Tests

• Disadvantages
• Adverse impact
• Practicality/Difficult to administer
• Job relatedness

56
Job Knowledge Tests

• Designed to measure how much a person knows about
  a job.
• Examples include
• computer programming knowledge
• knowledge of electronics
• knowledge of mechanical principles

57
Job Knowledge Tests

• Advantages
• Content Validity
• Criterion-related validity
• Face Validity
• Disadvantages
• Adverse Impact

58
Work Samples

• Work samples are tests that measure applicants
  to perform brief examples of important job tasks.
• Examples of work samples
• Paramedic candidates demonstrating CPR skills
• Administrative Assistant candidates demonstrating
  typing skills
• A truck-driving applicant being asked to back a
  truck up to a loading dock

59
Work Samples

• Advantages
• Content Validity
• Criterion-related Validity
• Face Validity
• Less adverse impact than written exams
• Disadvantages
• Expensive to construct and administer

60
Job Interviews

• The most popular employee selection procedure.
• The common, unstructured interview tends to lack
  reliability and validity.
• Different interviewers look for different things
  and interpret interviewee responses quite
  differently.
• Campion, Campion, and Hudson (1994) reported that
  the criterion-related validity of the
  unstructured job interviews was .10.
• Job applicants have become increasingly aware of
  interviewer biases and popular interview
  questions.

61
Job Interviews

• Improving the job interview by providing
  structure to the process
• Develop an interview guide so that all
  interviewers are asking the same questions
• Base questions on a job analysis
• Provide an area for interviewers to take notes on
  the applicants job-related responses
• Have interviewers rate applicants responses
• Conduct multiple interviews
• Campion, Campion, and Hudson (1994) reported that
  the criterion-related validity of the structured
  job interviews was .34.

62
Job Interviews

• Improving the job interview by providing training
  for interviewers that addresses the following
  biases
• First impressions
• Contrast effects
• Similarity effects
• Over-weighting of negative information
• Physical attractiveness and nonverbal cues

63
Job Interviews

• Advantages
• Incremental Validity
• Predict job performance even after you control
  for cognitive ability -- it compliments cognitive
  ability
• Content Validity
• Face Validity
• Disadvantages
• Adverse impact

64
Assessment Centers

• Assessment centers are detailed, structured
  evaluations of job applicants using a variety of
  instruments and techniques
• Characteristics of assessment centers include
• At least one of the techniques used is a
  simulation
• Multiple candidates and trained assessors are
  involved
• Overall judgment regarding the applicant is based
  on information from multiple assessors and
  multiple techniques
• All techniques are job-related.

65
Assessment Centers

• Assessment center instruments and techniques
  typically include
• Structured job interviews
• Personality and cognitive ability tests
• In-basket exercises
• Role-playing
• Leaderless group discussions
• Business games

66
Assessment Centers

• Advantages
• Criterion-related validity
• Particularly useful for selecting managerial
  candidates
• Disadvantages
• Expensive to construct and administer
• Time consuming

67
Employee Selection Decisions

• Clinical approach - a decision maker subjectively
  combines information about candidates
• Multiple regression model - combining information
  with statistically determined weights
  (compensatory)
• Multiple cutoffs - using a minimum cutoff score
  on each of the various selection tools
• Multiple hurdle - requires that acceptance or
  rejection decision be made at each of several
  stages in a screening process

68
Selection Decisions
69
Setting Cutoff Scores

• Norm-referenced Methods
• Content Validity Methods
• Criterion-related Validity Methods
• Utility Analysis Methods

70
Setting Cutoff Scores

• The process of setting cutoff scores should begin
  with job analysis
• When possible, data on the actual relation of
  test scores to outcome measures of job
  performance should be considered carefully
• Cutoff scores should be set high enough to ensure
  that minimum standards of job performance are met

71
Banding

• In banding, differences in test scores that are
  not statistically different from the top score
  are ignored
• The width of the band, or the proportion of the
  total test scores that are equivalent to the top
  score, is determined by the precision of the
  selection test.
• Banding is controversial.

72
Legal Issues of Employee Selection

• Civil Rights Act of 1964
• Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967)
• Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971)
• Albermarle Paper Co. v. Moody (1975)
• Washington v. Davis (1976)
• Connecticut v. Teal (1982)
• Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
• Civil Rights Act of 1991

73
Affirmative Action

• Affirmative Action is the development of policies
  that try to ensure that jobs are made available
  to qualified individuals regardless of sex, age,
  or ethnic background.
• Affirmative Action Strategies
• Intentional recruitment of minority applicants
• Identification and removal of employment
  practices working against minority applicants and
  employees
• Preferential hiring and promotion of minorities

74
Affirmative Action

• Reasons for Affirmative Action Plans
• Involuntary Government Regulation
• Involuntary Court Order
• Voluntary Consent Decree
• Voluntary Desire to be a good citizen

75
Affirmative Action Plans

• Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on non-target
  group members perception of target group members
• Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on target
  group members
• Effects of Affirmative Action Plans on
  organizations

76
Doing The Right Thing

• The Performance Perspective
• The Legal Perspective
• The Moral-Ethical Perspective

77
Forms of Discrimination

• Disparate Treatment
• Disparate Impact
• Reverse Discrimination