Ling 390 Intro to Linguistics Winter 2005 Class 1 Monday, January 3, 2005

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Syntax Slide

• Chapter 5 Exx 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 (Give surface and
  deep structure for 11 no trees)
• Problem Set 4
• Goals for syntax chapter
• Not responsible for Section 4 (Verb raising) or
  how to do passive sentences
• You should know how to do the following
• identify the lexical/syntactic category of word
• construct phrases and simple sentences and
  sentences with embedded sentences (draw trees for
  these structures)
• apply different movement operations to derive
  surface structure forms from deep structure

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• The part of the grammar that combines words into
  sentences
• The study of the system of rules and categories
  that underlies sentence formation.
• The goal of syntax is to come up with universal
  principles (Universal Grammar) that describes all
  languages phrase formation procedures
• Syntax is responsible for the hierarchical
  structure of phrases and their creation

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Syntactic Categories
• Lexical categories Noun (N), Verb (V),
  Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and Adverb (Adv)
• Nonlexical Categories Determiner (Det)
  Auxiliary Verb (Aux) - Modal and Nonmodal
  Conjunction (Con) Degree word (Deg)
• Table 5.1, p. 153
• Harder to define nonlexical words (the or so
  compared to hill or book)
• Some words can belong to more than one category
  - examples? like/fond

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Syntax
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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Lexical
• words that have semantic content
• words that can be inflected
• an open class to which new members can be added
• includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and
  prepositions

• Nonlexical
• words that have gramatical function
• words that do not have morphology
• words that resist change
• a closed class to which new members are not added
• includes determiners, auxiliary verbs, degree
  words, qualifiers, pronouns, conjunctions,
  complementizers, and particles

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• How to determine syntactic category - MEANING
• Noun person, place or thing (Jeff, classroom,
  book)
• Verb action, sensation, state of being (run,
  loves, sees, be)
• Adjective describes a noun (green, ugly)
• Adverb describes a verb (quickly, slowly)
• Preposition describes physical location (to,
  for, from, on, in)

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• How to determine syntactic category INFLECTION
  TEST
• Only certain inflectional suffixes attach to
  certain lexical categories
• There are some words that belong to these
  syntactic categories that do not take these
  suffixes (funner, intelligenter)

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• How to determine syntactic category
  DISTRIBUTION - SPECIFIERS
• Determiner specifies a noun (the, a, these,
  that)
• Adverbs specifies a verb (always, often, never)
• Degree specifies an adjective or preposition
  (very, quite, really)
• So you can tell a N if it can occur after a Det
• A V can occur with an Aux verb
• An Adjective with a degree word

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Noun phrases (NP)
• presidents - contains only the head noun
• the presidents - contains a specifier and head
  noun
• presidents of the USA - contains the head N and a
  complement prepositional phrase
• the presidents of the USA - contains a specifier,
  head N, complement PP
• The complement PP of the USA contains the head P
  of and a complement NP. The NP the USA contains
  the specifier and head N

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Syntax

• Verb Phrases (VP)
• sings - contains only the head verb
• often sings - contains a specifier and head verb
• sings a ballad - contains the head V and a
  complement NP
• often sings a ballad - contains a specifier, head
  V, complement NP
• The complement NP a ballad contains the head N
  ballad and specifier a.

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Adjective Phrases (AP)
• happy - contains only the head adjective (A)
• very happy - contains a specifier and head A
• happy with the results - contains the head A and
  a complement PP
• very happy with the results - contains a
  specifier, head A, complement PP
• The complement PP with the results contains the
  head P and complement NP the results. The NP
  contains specifier and head N.

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Prepositional Phrases (PP)
• in - contains only the head preposition (P)
• almost in - contains a specifier and head P
• in the car - contains the head P and a complement
  NP
• almost in the car - contains a specifier, head P,
  complement NP
• The complement NP the car contains the head N and
  specifier.

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax
Phrase structure rules The preceding examples
show that any given phrase can be composed of a
mandatory head and optional complement and
optional specifier. This is written as XP ?
(Spec) X (Comp) The optional components are
written in ()s. From previous examples we have
the following Can you think of any other
possibilities?
AP ? (Deg) A (PP) PP ? (Deg) P (NP)
NP ? (Det) N (PP) VP ? (Adv) V (NP)
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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Phrase Structure - units of words, but not
  sentences phrases
• Each phrase consists of the head, a specifier
  and a complement
• The way the book groups phrases is called X' (X
  bar) where X stands for whatever category youre
  dealing with (Noun, Verb, etc)

XP
X'
(Specifier)
X
(Complement)
head
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Syntax

• Phrase Structure
• The heads of a phrase are mandatory

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Phrase Structure
• Specifiers can occur before the head (in
  English) and are optional

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Phrase Structure
• Complements can occur after the head (in
  English) and are optional

s are only used when it is not necessary to
show the internal structure of that phrase.
Assume that it is NOT OK to use s.
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Syntax

• Phrase Structure Rules
• XP ? (specifier) X (complement)

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Syntax

• Phrase Structure Rules
• AP ? Deg A

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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Phrase Structure Rules
• VP ? Adv V

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Syntax

• Phrase Structure Rules
• PP ? P NP

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Syntax

• VP ? Deg V PP PP ? P NP

MERGE
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Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• VP ? Deg V PP PP ? P NP

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Simple sentences The sentence or IP is the
highest level in the sentence structure. These
elements are mandatory for an English Sentence.
IP ? NP (subject ) I (inflection) I ? I VP
(predicate) I ? or - Past and/or a Modal
Lines will never intersect NP to the left VP to
the right
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Steps in drawing trees.
Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Step 1 - assign each word to the appropriate
  category.

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Steps in drawing trees.
Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Step 2 working from right to left (for
  English), write the appropriate phrasal
  structure. Specifiers go directly to XP level.

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Steps in drawing trees.
Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Step 3 There is no complement for the NP that
  man so move on to the previous VP. The NP is a
  complement for the VP so attach the NP to V'

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Steps in drawing trees.
Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Step 4 The VP is not a complement of the NP.
  Draw the final NP.

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Steps in drawing trees.
Syntax Slide
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Syntax

• Step 5 Connect the predicate VP and the subject
  NP as the complement and specifier (respectively)
  of IP

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Sentences (IP) Each IP consists of an NP as
specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with
VP as a complement The students hated the book
The students hated the textbook
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The students hated the book

The students hated the textbook
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Syntax Slide
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The students hated the book

The students hated the textbook
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Syntax Slide
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The students hated the book

The students hated the textbook
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The students hated the book

IP
I'
VP
V'
NP
N'
I
N
Det
V
Det
N
Pst
The students hated the textbook
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Syntax Slide
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The students will hate the book

IP
I'
VP
V'
NP
N'
I
N
Det
V
Det
N
- Pst
The students will hate the
textbook
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Syntax Slide
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The housewives kept the secrets

The housewives kept the
secrets
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• Sentences (IP)
• Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the
  head (which is Inflection) with VP as a
  complement The housewives can keep the secrets

The housewives can keep the
secrets
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• Subcategorization
• Fancy term for what complements any XP can or
  must take

Verbs that can take a complement are transitive
(eat, read, look) She read a book Verbs that do
not are intransitive (sleep, lie, laugh) He
slept See Table 5.5, p. 163 for what complements
certain verbs can take
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Syntax Slide
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Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Think about this sentence I wonder if she will
take the test. How do we incorporate the second
sentence she will take the test? This second
sentence (called a complement clause or CP) is
serving as the complement of the V wonder Like
all other syntactic structures, CPs consist of
CP ? C ' and C ' ? C IP Words such as that,
whether and if are known as complementizers
(C). The specifier position is open for Move
operations (discussed later) Matrix clauses are
the largest clause that contain the CP(s) I
wonder if she will take the test.
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Example of a complement clause
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Example of a complement clause
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A Bit Theoretically Bizarre
If we want to keep the structures the same for
the theory, then it is posited that all IPs are
actually CPs with or without a C (like we have I
whether or not it actually gets filled with a
surface form).
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Questions?
Following our rules for sentence structure how do
we account for questions? Is the man
intelligent? Can you come to dinner? In the
first example, there is no NP to the left of the
IP and in the second, the modal is before the
subject. To explain this we will use the theory
of Deep Structure.
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Deep Structure
Accounting for sentences such as questions and
passives with a new set of rules would be messy.
Transformational grammar accounts for the
differences with transformations (move). All
sentences in deep structure (before the move)
will follow our previous phrasal rules. How do
we know deep structure exists?
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Syntax Slide
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Arguments for Deep Structure
What will you say? In this sentence What is
functioning as the object of the sentence. This
can be demonstrated by trying to add an object
after the verb. What will you say goodbye. In
this sentence, the verb requires an object, so
omitting it in the non-question form does not
work You will say
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Syntax Slide
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Arguments for Deep Structure
Deep structure for this sentence is You will say
what? To arrive at deep structure Merge - Deep
Structure Deep Structure - Move Surface
structure Surface structure trees must show
traces of units original position.
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Syntax Slide
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D-Structure and S-Structure
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Syntax Slide
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Movement
2 types of movement Inversion (yes/no
question) That guy should eat an apple ? Should
that guy t eat an apple? Wh- Movement
Inversion the students should read what for class
? What should the students t read t for class?
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion

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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion

CP
C '
IP
C Q
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I -pst
Det
V
N
student
that
t
study
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
IP
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I pst
Det
V
N
student
that
studied
study
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
IP
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I pst
Det
V
N
student
that
study
t
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement

IP
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I -pst
Det
V
N
student
that
study
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
IP
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I -pst
Det
V
N
student
that
t
study
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
IP
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I -pst
Det
V
N
student
that
t
study
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Syntax Slide
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Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
IP
I'
VP
NP
V'
N'
I -pst
NP
Det
V
N
N'
student
that
t
study
N
t
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Syntax Slide
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Practice Identifying D-Structure S-Structure
In order to get the deep structure from the
surface structure, follow these steps
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Syntax Slide
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Structural Ambiguity
We have been presenting different phrase
structure trees to show the hierarchy and
relationship of the different phrases in a
sentence. What happens when the difference in
the relationship of these phrases also causes a
difference in the meaning/interpretation of a
sentence? When there are two or more
interpretations of one sentence with the exact
same words in the exact same order, we call this
structural ambiguity (discussed in your text in
Chapter 6, section 3.2).
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Syntax Slide
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Structural Ambiguity
For example Sam ate the cake in the kitchen.
(See handout for answers) What are the 2
meanings? What is the relationship between the
phrases in the sentence (what modifies what?)
Interpretation 1 Sam ate the cake that was in
the kitchen. Relationship of phrases in the
sentence The PP in the kitchen modifies the N
cake
Interpretation 2 Sam was eating the cake in the
kitchen. Relationship of phrases in the sentence
The PP in the kitchen modifies the V ate
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Syntax Practice
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Syntax Practice
For each of the following phrases, determine the
head of the phrase, any specifiers, and any
complements.
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Syntax Practice
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Syntax Practice

• Draw phrase structure trees for the following
• the rat
• men
• in the barn
• really mean
• ran
• ran into the shed
• rather boring
• hate those pancakes
• the denial of the accusation

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Syntax Practice
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Syntax Practice

• Simple sentences
• Practice drawing trees for the following
  sentences
• Dogs should always go for a walk.
• Those monsters were hiding under the bed.
• Abner concealed the document.
• Marge usually watches the sunset.
• The children are playing with a dinosaur.

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Syntax Practice
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Syntax Practice
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Identify the CP (Complement Phrase) in the
following matrix sentences. Put a bracket around
the CP.
1.) The teacher hopes that the students will
study hard.
2.) The janitor wondered if the floor would
stay clean.
3.) The floor knew that it would not stay
clean.
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Syntax Practice
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Syntax Practice
Practice Drawing D-Structure S-Structure
Can a dog bark? Will the students be bored? Will
the trip be enjoyable? Who can see the shore?
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Syntax Practice
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Syntax Practice
Deep structure ? Surface structure
Can a dog bark? Will the students be
bored? Will the trip be enjoyable? Who can
see the shore?

a dog can bark ? can a dog t bark the
students will be bored ? will the students t be
bored the trip will be enjoyable ? will
the trip t be enjoyable who can see the
shore ? who t can see the shore