Exploring Arab Educators and learners views about Nature of science and its conformity with their cu

1
Exploring Arab Educators and learners views
about Nature of science and its conformity with
their culture
Walid Shihabi Assistant Professor of Physical
Science Tulsa Community College wshihabi_at_tulsacc.e
du   Literature Review
2
The Presentation Outline

• 1) The Nature of Science NOS, Traditional
  Versus Constructivist Views
• Traditional versus constructivist
• Views of nature of science VNOS
• Views on Science-Technology-Society VOSTS
  Science and Culture Nexus SCN
• 2) Review of the studies
• Arab Science Teachers Conception to Nature of
  Science.
• Arab Science Students Conception of the Nature
  of Science.
• Arab Educators Perspectives on the Relation
  Between their Culture and Modern Science
• 3) Discussion Conclusion.

3
1) The Nature of Science NOS, Traditional
Versus Constructivist Views

• a) Traditional versus constructivist views to the
  Nature of Science

4
Difference between NOS and science processes

• Scientific processes are activities related to
  the collection and interpretation of data, and
  the derivation of conclusions.
• NOS, by comparison, is concerned with the values
  and epistemological assumptions underlying these
  activities
• References (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 1998
  Chiappetta, Koballa, Collette, 1998).

5

• The traditional Baconian logico-empirical view to
  the NOS is based upon a positivist belief that
  the only valid way of gaining scientific
  knowledge is by inductive methods i.e.
  observation and controlled experimentation

Science teachers are predominantly positivists in
their views (King, 1991), an aspect that was
investigated by the research reviewed in this
paper, with respect to Arab educators.
6
The constructivist/contemporary /informed view,
on the other hand, views the beliefs and methods
practiced by scientists from the same discipline
as paradigm. New theories are formed during
the abandonment of a paradigm for a new one. This
formation could be done by various methods.
Hence, a single method for investigation is not
existent.
7
Views of nature of science VNOS

• Lederman, L., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell,
  R.,Schwartz, R. (2002).Views of nature of
  science questionnaire Toward valid and
  meaningful assessment of learners conceptions of
  nature of science. Journal of Research in Science
  Teaching, 39, 497521.

8

• Despite many disagreements about the specific
  definition or meaning of NOS, at a certain level
  of generality, however, some important aspects of
  NOS are not controversial.
• Some of these latter aspects, which the authors
  believe to be accessible to K12 students and
  relevant to their daily lives, were adopted and
  emphasized for the purpose of developing the
  VNOS

9
scientific knowledge is 1) tentative 2)
empirical 3) theory-laden 4) partly the
product of human inference, imagination, and
creativity 5) socially and culturally embedded.
Three additional important aspects are 6) the
distinction between observation and inference,
7) the lack of a universal recipe-like method
for doing science, and 8) the functions of and
relationships between scientific theories and
laws.
10
(No Transcript)
11
(No Transcript)
12
In summary, traditional view suggests that
science is universal i.e. one scientific method
by all, and scientists are objective with no
biases. The constructivist view, on the other
hand, perceives science as context bounded and
hence has its limits, consequently, there are
various methods in science.
13
Views on Science-Technology-Society VOSTS
Science and Culture Nexus SCN

• Aikenhead, G.S., Ryan, A.G. (1992). The
  development of a new instrument Views on
  science-technology-society (VOSTS). Science
  Education, 76, 477-491.
• Aikenhead, G. and Huntley, B. (1998) Science and
  culture nexus survey. Saskatchewan version
  quantitative. Revised Nov. 8 1998. University of
  Saskatchewan Canada. Retrieved from
  http//www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/rep
  ort.htm

14
The Authors asserts the following

• The goal of conventional science teaching has
  been to transmit to students the knowledge,
  skills, and values of the scientific community.
  This content conveys a Western worldview due to
  the fact that science is a subculture of Western
  culture. Thus, students with a much different
  worldview face a cross-cultural experience
  whenever they study Western science. How can
  these students master and critique a Western
  scientific way of knowing without losing
  something valuable from their own cultural way of
  knowing?

15
To First Nations science educator Madeleine
MacIvor (1995), the answer is clear

• "The need for the development of scientific and
  technical skills among our people is pressing.
  ... Reasserting authority in areas of economic
  development and health care requires community
  expertise in science and technology" (p. 74).
• "Conventional science must be presented as a way,
  not the way, of contemplating the universe" (p.
  88).
• In other words, there is a need for First
  Nations and Métis students to learn Western
  science, but without necessarily being
  assimilated into Western culture.

16
Views on science-technology-society VOSTS.

• VOSTS is an inventory or pool of 114 items
  developed by Aikenhead, Ryan, and Fleming to
• 1) serve researchers to generate a custom
  assessment instrument to suit a particular
  science-technology- society STS curriculum or
  teaching situation
• (2) making cross-cultural comparisons
• (3) developing items for STS topics not found in
  the VOSTS item pool

17
Nature of science and the multicultural aspect

• There are two schools of thought
• Aikenhead (1996) viewed science as a cultural
  enterprise, which is a sphere within a bigger
  cultural sphere of the society that harbors its
  enterprise.
• Hence, the role of science education is to
  acculturate or assimilate students into their own
  culture, not into the modern science culture.
  Hence modern science has to be taught as a
  subculture harmonized with students worldviews.
  Subsequently, the role of science educator is
  more of a tour guide who can relate science to
  every day context and allow students to form
  their own understandings using their own words
  even if it differ from the scientific terms.

18
CobernLoving (2000), on the other hand, suggest
that science could be universal, yet
multicultural. They reject the idea that science
has plurality of origin and plurality of
practices. They proposed a definition for the
standard account of science i.e. universal view
of science. They argued the necessity of such
definition as a criterion to distinguish reliable
knowledge from unreliable one. The points they
proposed for the knowledge to be accepted as
science is demonstrated by its account to
natural phenomena that can be empirically and
objectively testable, metaphysical commitment
about order and causation in nature, and its
ability to be accepted by the scientific
community.
19
Islamic view to science
Sardar (2007) argued that Islam promotes
scientific inquiry there are more than 800
verses in Quran that invite the reader to think
and to examine the material world, using reason
to understand nature (p. 1). However, due to its
holistic point of view to nature and deity, Islam
lost its impetus as a motivator when ijtihad
was ceased. When the role it practices in life
was demoted, it led to scientific and
technological retard
20
Loo (2001) rejects the idea of redefining science
and technology according to ones cultural point
of view., emphasizing on science as a study of
natural phenomena explained by natural cause. Loo
(2001) refers back to the gold age of Islam which
without its contribution Renaissance in Europe
might not have been realized (p. 55). He
considered no valid type of Islamic science
except the one guided by environmental ethics.
21
Valid Islamic Science as viewed by Sadar and Loo

• This type of Islamic science (environmental
  ethics) is based upon the philosophy of khilafah
  (vicegerent).
• The khilafah philosophy views humans as stewards
  of God estate that have social responsibility
  toward the biophysical environment as well as the
  social-cultural environment.
• Such philosophy provides societal parameters to
  prevent any physical, emotional, environmental,
  or cultural destruction. It promotes social
  justice, and public interest.

22
Review of the studies
Arab/Muslim Science Teachers Conception to
Nature of Science
Haider (1999a), and Abd-El-KhalickBouJaoude
(1997) conducted studies in United Arab Emirates
UAE and Lebanon, respectively that identified
and analyzed Arab teachers conception to nature
of science.
Both research papers used 22 question
questionnaire that was a modification of the
VOSTS and targeted pre-service and in service
teachers.
23

• They focused on five aspects of nature of
  science
• scientific theories and models, 2)
• role of scientist, 3) scientific knowledge,
• 4) scientific method, 5) and scientific laws.
• The questionnaire was presented in a bipolar
  format where at one end was a statement
  reflecting a traditional (baconian) view, while
  at the opposite end was its constructivist view
  counterpart

24
e.g. Traditional belief Theories are based
directly on observation, where observation is
exactly what you see. While its constructivist
view counterpart is Observation is influenced by
theories scientists hold, because experimental
procedures differ according to theories
scientists hold, hence observation differs
(Haider, 1999a, p. 821). The teachers were
asked to select the view they agree with and the
level of their agreement.
25
The overall results revealed that 46 pre-service
and 47 in-service teachers, agreed with
constructivist views while 41 and 43 of
pre-service and in-service teachers respectively,
agreed with the traditional (baconian) views.
These results indicate that teachers have
mixed views (p. 811) neither clearly
constructivist nor clearly traditional (p. 817).
Teachers views were more traditional regarding
to the role of a scientist, while their views
about the scientific knowledge were
constructivist.
26
Abd-El-Khalick et al. (1997) pointed out that
when the term scientific method appeared on the
items that addressed the topic of scientific
approaches to investigation, all teachers
expressed traditional views. However, when
responding to other items that addressed the same
topic without explicitly stating the term
scientific method, almost all teachers 94
adopted the constructivist view i.e. scientific
activities are not completely logical and
sequential. It seems that teachers did not give
much thought to items in which the term
scientific method appeared.
27
Haider (1999a), on the other hand, argued that
the constructivist views are attributed to
religious factors, while the traditional views
are attributed to the school of education/science
culture and the region past colonization history.
He quoted several statements from famous historic
Islamic scientists that supported the
constructivist approach, such as Al-Burini the
master of observation in Islamic sciences whose
methods included observation and experimentation,
reason and reflection, as well as Sacred
Scripture and ancient sources
28
Al-Burini viewed scientific knowledge as
intuitive stating the following the answers
received from Nature depends always upon the
question put to her as well as the way the
questions are asked (p. 818 referring to
Alburini quoted by Nasr).
In his study, Haider (1999a), argued based upon
the results that constructivist view in the
school of science in the Arab world would provide
the student with a successful way of thinking but
not the only way. It would furnish a collateral
learning environment that provides more than
one way of understanding nature, and consequently
they students can use a suitable way without
having to abandon their original beliefs (p.
819).
29
Continue/Review of the studies
2 Arab Science Students Conception of the
Nature of Science
Boujaode Khalick (1995) investigated how
Lebanese middle school students define science
and its purpose. The students were interviewed
for 10-20 minutes and their responses were
tape-recorded and transcribed.
The questions were specific over 1) how they
define science, 2) the purpose of studying
science, and 3) its utilization in everyday
life.
30
Data were analyzed based upon background
variables. The results indicated that 46.5 of
the students viewed science to be school, not
life, related, and as a preparation for higher
subjects and career. 68 of the participants
described science as information about humans,
animals, plants, sky, and stars
Regarding to the background factor influence
students in public school saw science as an
academic subject more than the students in
private school. Furthermore, students with
professional parents expressed their utilization
to science in their hobbies and reported seeing
science in career settings.
31
The authors argued that the source of the
academic view to science is due to parents
pressure, as their expectation of high
educational performance from their kids is mainly
focused on science-related subjects. This
pressure that view science as an academic
subject persists in and out of school culture in
Lebanon (p. 17)
The authors argued that this phenomenon could be
problematic for developing county as efforts need
to be directed toward preparing scientifically
literate citizens and decision makers, in
addition to environmental and societal care
takers more than preparing future doctors or
engineers.
32
A different study, by Haider Balfakih (1999b),
investigated 1600 UAE high school students views
about the epistemology of science. Twenty one
Items addressing the nature of scientific
knowledge were selected from the VOSTS inventory
questions were about their views on the
definition of science, observation, models,
scientific knowledge, hypotheses, theories, laws,
scientific method, equations and nature,
scientific knowledge, uncertainty and precision.
33
70 of the students were holding traditional
views about the scientific method. When asked if
the use of scientific method is characteristic of
best scientists, however, 48 agreed with such
view, which concurred with Abd-El-Khalick et al.
(1997) results mentioned earlier.
Students held traditional views on the nature of
science, theories, laws and scientific approach
science as a process, while holding
constructivist views on scientific observation,
the nature of classification schemes, scientific
approach to investigations, and precision and
uncertainty in scientific knowledge.
34
The authors, HaiderBalfakih (1999b), attributed
the high percentages in the latter despite the
traditional curriculum is the school of science,
to students Islamic culture. Students held the
belief that God only hold the absolute knowledge
(p. 22).
In general, 21 of the students selected
responses that reflect their culture. The study
argued that cultural views is in conflict with
traditional claims such as knowledge is
absolute, the scientific method is the only way
to gain knowledge, and observation is not a
theory-laden (p. 23).
35
The study reflects the cultural influence
(Islamic culture in this case) on the
epistemology of science. Consequently, educators
need to consider the cultural background when
developing curriculums, the authors concluded.
36
Continue/Review of the studies
3 Arab Educators Perspectives on the Relation
Between their Culture and Modern Science
Haider (2000) investigated the Arab university
professors perspectives on the influence of
Arabic society on science and technology ST
and the nature of such societal influences.
Haider (2002), on the other hand, investigated
Arab secondary school science teachers
perspectives on the interaction between Arab
culture and modern science.
37

• The items in Haider (2000) study were selected
  from three sections of the VOSTS
• the influence of society on ST,
• the social interaction, and
• social construction of scientific knowledge
  sections., while

The instrument developed in Haider (2002) study
constituted 52 items soliciting opinions about
the following 1) science, 2) teaching and
learning science, 3) culture, 4) connection
between science and culture, and 5) connection
between science and Arab everyday knowledge.
38
The participants in Haider (2000) study were
sixty five university science and non-science
professors from over six Arab countries who are
teaching at the UAE University. Participants were
categorized as scientists, technologists, and
interested people.
While Haider (2002) study included 286 secondary
school teachers in biology, chemistry, and
physics.
39
The analysis of Haider (2000) data identified
four influences on the ST. 1) government, 2)
private sector, 3) public at large and 4)
culture.
Regarding to the government influence, 85 agreed
that policies in the Arab countries influence ST
e.g. a respondent indicated that the Egyptian
government stopped establishing a nuclear reactor
after the Chernobyls accident that forced
Egyptian researchers to change their research
interests. (p. 262). In addition, 51 agreed
that Arab countries do not have clear ST
strategy.
40
Regarding to private sector influence, 54 agreed
with the statement that cooperation should lead
scientific research. They reasoned their choice
by arguing the necessity of competition, fund,
and fast communication for ST development.
Regarding to the public influence on ST, 35
agreed that students should be required to study
more science classes in order to catch up with
other nations. However, many added that
students attitudes and abilities should be
considered as well.
41
Furthermore, 82 agreed that ST development is
dependent upon public support, which is in turn
dependent upon the school system
Regarding to cultural influences, 48 agreed that
religious or ethical views influence scientific
research, while 12 disagreed. Also 34 agreed
that religious or ethical views influence
scientific research only in critical areas such
as genetic engineering and military research. 25
agreed that cultural influences could lead
scientists, unconsciously, to choose research
that would support their cultures views, while
23 agreed that cultural influence cause
scientists to avoid research that could go
against their upbringing or beliefs.
42
In Haider (2002), 60 of the teachers disagreed
with the view that evidence arrived through
scientific means is not always regarded as
sensible to everyday common knowledge, and 65
disagreed with the opinion that students belief
in everyday common knowledge inhibits their
learning science.
Regarding teachers views on culture, 80 viewed
culture as totality of peoples identity and
lifestyle, and the same percentage agreed that
learning another cultures way of thinking about
natural phenomenon can empower people by
providing them with a new way of thinking
(Haider, 2002 p. 618).
43
Regarding teachers views about the connection
between science and culture, 82 disagreed with
the view that science is a subculture of the
Western culture.
Regarding the influence of science on Arab
culture 85 agreed that integration of science
with traditional Arab culture is possible, which
implies conformity between science and their
culture. Furthermore, 55 indicated that
science does not teach the rejection of ideas
held by Arab society and 59 of them agreed that
school science does not impose a foreign set of
cultural values on Arab students (Haider, 2002
p. 620).
44
Haider (2000) discussed the enabling factors for
the success of ST in the Arabic society. He
referred to the concept of ijtihad i.e. to
exert the out-most effort to derive an
understanding from pertinent resources supported
by detailed evidence, as a powerful cultural
enabling agent for success in ST. While taqlid
i.e. opposite to ijtihad as it requires from a
person just blind or unquestioning pursue, was
identified as cultural disabling agent to an ST
success in the Arabic world.
45
Haider (2002) shared concern regarding to the
lack of understanding to the social component. He
advocated border crossing approach, where
students elect what to assimilate to and what to
learn collaterally without believing in
everything they are taught (p. 621).
Also participants demonstrated confusion between
science and technology and each ones aim, which
might deter NOS teaching. The view shared by
most of the teachers, on the lack of conflict
between modern science and Arab culture,
indicates high degree of overlap between modern
science and Arab culture (p. 622).
46
Discussion Conclusion

• The education system, in the Arab world,
  disseminates a traditional view which caused
  participants to refer back to the traditional
  view when reminded by their education via phrases
  such as scientific method or role of scientist.
  
• Nature of knowledge, however, is a term that
  brought to their recollection the big picture
  that included their culture and beliefs as well,
  which triggered constructivists view responses.

47
influence of science on learners everyday life
is dependent upon the learners background and
parents profession. While students, with
well-educated parents, were able to relate
science to their hobbies and several
careers-related applications, students who were
less fortunate lacked the former views. Science
was viewed as an academic subject that might help
them in their future academic classes or a career
pursue.
48
Religion could have positive or negative affect
depending whether the participant was leaning
toward ijtihad or taqlid those two terms
were discussed in the review section. While
ijtihad proved positive influence, taqlid, on the
other hand, had negative influence.
49
References

• (AAAS) American Association for the Advancement
  of Science (1990) Science for all
• Americans (New York Oxford University Press).
• Abd-El-Khalick, F., BouJaoude S. (1997). An
  Exploratory Study of the Knowledge Base for
  Science Teaching. Journal of Research in Science
  Teaching, 34, 673-699.
• Aikenhead, G. S. (2006). Science Education for
  Everyday Life Evidence-based practice. New
  York Teachers College Press.
• Aikenhead, G. S. (1996). Science Education
  Border Crossing into the Subculture of Science.
  Studies in Science Education, 27, 1-52

50
References

• Aikenhead, G. and Huntley, B. (1998) Science and
  culture nexus survey. Saskatchewanversion
  quantitative. Revised Nov. 8 1998. University of
  Saskatchewan Canada.Retrieved from
  http//www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/rep
  ort.htm
• Aikenhead, G.S., Ryan, A.G. (1992). The
  development of a new instrument Views on
  science-technology-society (VOSTS). Science
  Education, 76, 477-491.
• BouJaoude, S., Abd-El-Khalick, F. (1995, April).
  Lebanese middle School students definitions of
  science and perceptions of its purpose and usage.
  Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
  National Association for Research in Science
  Teaching, San Francisco, CA.
• Cobern, W. W., Loving C. C. (2000). Defining
  Science in a multicultural world Implications
  for science education. Science Education, 85,
  50-67.
• Haidar, A. H. (2002). Emirates secondary school
  science teachers perspectives on the nexus
  between modern science and Arab culture.
  International Journal of Science Education, 24,
  611-626.

51
References

• Haidar, A. H. (2000). Professors Views on the
  Influence of Arab Society on Science and
  Technology. Journal of Science Education and
  Technology, 9, 257-273.
• Haidar, A. H. (1999a). Emirates pre-service and
  in-service teachers views about the nature of
  science. International Journal of Science
  Education, 21, 807-822.
• Haidar, A. H. (1999b, March). United Arab
  Emirates science students views about the
  epistemology of science. A paper presented at the
  annual meeting of the National Association for
  Research in Science Teaching, Boston.
• King, B. B. (1991). Beginning teachers knowledge
  of and attitudes toward history and philosophy of
  science. Science Education, 75, 135-141.
• Lederman, L., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell,
  R.,Schwartz, R. (2002).Views of nature of
  science questionnaire Toward valid and
  meaningful assessment of learners conceptions of
  nature of science. Journal of Research in Science
  Teaching, 39, 497521.

52
References

• Loo, S. P. (2001). Islam, science and science
  education Conflict or concord? Studies in
  Science Education, 36, 45-78.
• National Research Council. (1996). National
  science education standards. Washington, DC
  National Academy Press.
• Sadar, Z. (2007, July). Beyond the troubled
  relation. Nature, 488.
• Sadar, Z. (2007). Islam and science. Transcript
  of a lecture at the royal society. Retrieved on
  April, 14 2008 from http//royalsociety.o
  rg/page.asp?tip1id5747