????????Pre-Socratic%20philosophy

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???????
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• ????????Pre-Socratic philosophy
• ????????????????????????
• Aristotle ???????

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Milesian School Eleatic School Pythagorean Pluralist School Atomist School of Pluralists
Thales 624-546
Anaximander 610-546
Solon 580-570 Anaximenes 585-525 Xenophanes 580-480 Pythagoras 580-500
Cleisthenes Parmenides 539-469 Heraclitus 540-475 520 in Crotona established a secret religious society
Zeno 490-430 Empedocles 493-433
Melissus 480-400 Anaxagoras 500-438 Leucippus ca.450
Democritus 460-370
460-430 Sophists Gorgias 483-375 Cratylus Protagoras 484-411
Socrates 469-399
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?????Milesian School, School of Miletus

• ???(Milet, Miletus)?????? Ionia??,??????????????(?
  ?)? ??????????(????????????)?
• ?????
• Thales (624-546 BC)
• Anaximander (610-547 BC)
• Anaximenes (585-525 BC)

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Thales

• 624-546 BC
• water is substance

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??

• ?????????,?????????
• ???????,????Iranians
• ??????????
• ??????

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????(Seven Sages )

• Solon of Athens "Nothing in excess"
• ?????????
• Chilon of Sparta "Know thyself"
• ?????????????
• Thales of Miletus "To bring surety brings
  ruin"
• ???? Cf.
  Edmund Burke (1729-17977)
• Bias of Priene "Too many workers spoil the
  work"
• ??????????(
  vs.????? )
• Cleobulus of Lindos "Moderation is impeccable"
• ????
• Pittacus of Mytilene "Know thine opportunity"
• 
  ?????????
• Periander of Corinth Forethought in all
  things
• 
  ??????????

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Thales???

• Of all things that are, the most ancient is God,
  for he is uncreated. (??????????)
• The most beautiful is the universe, for it is
  God's.
• The greatest is space, for it holds all things.
• The swiftest is mind, for it speeds everywhere.
• The strongest, necessity, for it masters all.
• The wisest, time, for it brings everything to
  light.

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water is substance

• Thales????????????
• Thales ??,???????????????????????
• Thales???from which is everything that exists
  and from which it first becomes and into which it
  is rendered at last, its substance remaining
  under it, but transforming in qualities, that is
  the element and principle of things that are.
• For it is necessary that there be some nature,
  either one or more than one, from which become
  the other things of the object being saved...
  Thales the founder of this type of philosophy
  says that it is water.
• Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist
  substance turn into air, slime and earth. It
  seems clear that Thales viewed the Earth as
  solidifying from the water on which it floated
  and which surrounded Ocean

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Anaximander

• 610-547 BC
• Apeiron is substance

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• Thales??????
• ???????
• ??????????

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• Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all
  of the opposites found in nature for example,
  water can only be wet, never dry and therefore
  cannot be the one primary substance nor could
  any of the other candidates.
• He postulated the apeiron (limitless) as a
  substance that, although not directly perceptible
  to us, could explain the opposites he saw around
  him.

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• According to him, the Universe originates in the
  separation of opposites in the primordial
  (???)matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and
  cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of
  things an entire host of shapes and differences
  then grow
• (????????????????)

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• Anaximander maintains that all dying things are
  returning to the element from which they came
  (apeiron).
• The one surviving fragment of Anaximanders
  writing deals with this matter
• Whence things have their origin, Thence also
  their destruction happens, According to
  necessity For they give to each other justice
  and recompense(??)for their injustice In
  conformity with the ordinance of
  Time.????,?????????,?????

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Anaximenes

• 585-525 BC
• Aer is substance

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• He held that the air, with its variety of
  contents, its universal presence, its vague
  associations in popular fancy with the phenomena
  of life and growth, is the source of all that
  exists.
• Everything is air at different degrees of
  density, and under the influence of heat, which
  expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume,
  it gives rise to the several phases of existence.
  The process is gradual, and takes place in two
  directions, as heat or cold predominates. In this
  way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on
  the circumambient air.

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• Similar condensations produced the sun and stars
  and the flaming state of these bodies is due to
  the velocity of their motions. He states
• Just as our soul, being air, holds us
  together(?????), so do breath and air encompass
  the whole world."
• It was actually "aer" which he believed to be the
  common characteristic between all things. "Aer"
  is the Greek word for a mist rather than just
  pure air.
• ??Thales ?Anaximanders

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Milesian School ???

• The theoretical human has become a reality. The
  way of thinking has in its basic form moved away
  from the mythological thinking (or mythos) and
  into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or
  logos).
• From now on it is about explaining the universal
  and the general. Everything in the universe can
  now be approached by the thoughts of humans.
• ????/??????

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??????????????

• ???
• Eleatic School??-?-??
• Heraclitus???-?-??
• ?-????
• Pythagorean????
• Pluralist School?
• Atomist School of Pluralists?

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Eleatic School???Xenophanes

• 570 480 BC (??Anaximenes??)
• ????Ionia?,?????,?Elea???
• ??,??????????????

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????? Xenophanes

• there actually exists a truth of reality, but
  that humans as mortals are unable to know
  it.(????,????) Therefore, it is possible to act
  only on the basis of working hypotheses - we may
  act as if we knew the truth, as long as we know
  that this is extremely unlikely.
• This aspect of Xenophanes was brought out again
  by the late Sir Karl Popper and is a basis of
  Critical rationalism.

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Xenophanes

• Before Xenophanes, the method of the natural
  philosophers was inductive. That is, their ideas
  were based on observations of the world. And,
  their proofs were empirical and direct. However,
  Xenophanes pointed out that these sorts of ideas
  were relative. That is, different people had
  different perceptions of the world therefore,
  they had different ideas of the world. Their
  ideas about the world may be true, but they could
  not know it. So, according to Xenophanes, we
  cannot be sure that ideas about the world that
  are inductively derived are true. That is, we
  cannot be sure that ideas about the world that
  are based on our perceptions of the world are
  true. This posed a problem for the presocratics.

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Xenophanes

• Heraclitus??? He looked at what we can all agree
  to, that all is change. Inductively, if we look
  at the world, everything changes.
• But, this is still induction, based on our
  perceptions of the world.
• Parmemides ???the only truth is that that is
  deductively determined. Therefore, inductive
  "truths" are only opinions.

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?????? Xenophanes

• The Ethiops say that their gods are flat-nosed
  and black,While the Thracians say that theirs
  have blue eyes and red hair.Yet if cattle or
  horses or lions had hands and could draw,And
  could sculpture like men, then the horses would
  draw their godsLike horses, and cattle like
  cattle and each they would shapeBodies of gods
  in the likeness, each kind, of their own

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Xenophanes

• there was only one god -- namely, the world. God
  is one incorporeal(????) eternal being, and, like
  the universe, spherical in form(??) that he is
  of the same nature with the universe,
  comprehending all things within himself is
  intelligent, and pervades all things
  (???Pan-theism), but bears no resemblance to
  human nature either in body or mind.

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• There is no evidence that Xenophanes regarded
  this 'god' with any religious feeling, and all we
  are told about him (or rather about it) is purely
  negative. He is quite unlike a man, and has no
  special organs of sense, but 'sees all over,
  thinks all over, hears all over' (fr. 24).
  Further, he does not go about from place to place
  (fr. 26), but does everything 'without toil (fr.
  25).

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Xenophanes

• if there had ever been a time when nothing
  existed, nothing could ever have existed.
  Whatever is, always has been from eternity,
  without deriving its existence from any prior
  principles.
• Nature, he believed, is one and without limit
  that what is one is similar in all its parts,
  else it would be many that the one infinite,
  eternal, and homogeneous universe is immutable
  and incapable of change.

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Eleatic School??? Parmenides

• 539-469 BC
• ??Elea??
• On Nature?150????aletheia ? doxa

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? vs. ??

• there are two ways of inquiry that it is, that
  it is not. He said that the latter argument is
  never feasible because nothing can not be
• For never shall this prevail, that things that
  are not are.

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• For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can
  never predominate. You must debar your thought
  from this way of search, nor let ordinary
  experience in its variety force you along this
  way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye,
  sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound,
  and the tongue, to rule but (you must) judge by
  means of the Reason (Logos) the much-contested
  proof which is expounded by me.

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Zeno of Elea

• ca. 490BC-430BC?
• SOPHIST???

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Zenos Paradox

• Achilles and the tortoise
• "You can never catch up.
• In a race, the quickest runner can never overtake
  the slowest, since the pursuer must first reach
  the point whence the pursued started, so that the
  slower must always hold a lead
• The dichotomy paradox
• "You cannot even start.
• That which is in locomotion must arrive at the
  half-way stage before it arrives at the goal.
• The arrow paradox
• "You cannot even move.
• If everything when it occupies an equal space is
  at rest, and if that which is in locomotion is
  always occupying such a space at any moment, the
  flying arrow is therefore motionless.

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Heraclitus??

• 540-475BC
• Ephesus in Ionia
• The weeping philosopher

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???

• Democritus had gone insane and was laughing at
  everything obsessively, including weddings and
  funerals. Hippocrates found him surrounded by
  books and the bodies of animals which he had
  dissected to examine their bile. He said he was
  investigating the causes of insanity. On being
  questioned as to why he found the matters at
  which he laughed comical, he replied with the
  vanity argument, that all is "folly and baseness"
  and a waste of time, which is essentially what
  Heraclitus had said. Hippocrates gave him a
  "passing" on mental health and went away.
• ?????

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• CHANGE is real, and stability illusory
• the nature of everything is change itself

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??

• Everything flows and nothing is left (unchanged),
  orEverything flows and nothing stands still,
  orAll things are in motion and nothing remains
  still.
• By cosmic rule, as day yields night, so winter
  summer, war peace, plenty famine. All things
  change. Air penetrates the lump of myrrh, until
  the joining bodies die and rise again in smoke
  called incense."

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??

• Men do not know how that which is drawn in
  different directions harmonises with itself. The
  harmonious structure of the world depends upon
  opposite tension like that of the bow (?) and the
  lyre(?)."
• "This universe, which is the same for all, has
  not been made by any god or man, but it always
  has been, is, and will be an ever-living fire,
  kindling itself by regular measures and going out
  by regular measures

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?????

• "??taµ??? t??? a?t??? ?µßa???µ?? te ?a? ???
  ?µßa???µe?, e?µ?? te ?a? ??? e?µe?.""We both
  step and do not step in the same rivers. We are
  and are not.
• OrNo man ever steps in the same river twice,
  for it is not the same river and he is not the
  same man .

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Logos

• The idea of the logos (?)is also credited to him,
  as he proclaims that everything originates out of
  the logos. Further, Heraclitus said "I am as I am
  not", and "He who hears not me but the logos will
  say All is one."
• ???????????

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Pythagoreanism

• Pythagoras of Samos
• Between 580 and 572 BC between 500-490 BC
• Ionia
• 520 in Crotona established a secret religious
  society

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• ?? Pyth-ian?Delphi?Apollo??, agor-?????, "He
  spoke (agor-) the truth no less than did the
  Pythian (Pyth-)."
• ??????,??????????????
• Pythagorean theorem a2b2c2
• ??????????,????????????

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• number is the ruler of forms and ideas and the
  cause of gods and demons.
• Pythagoras and his students believed that
  everything was related to mathematics and that
  numbers were the ultimate reality and, through
  mathematics, everything could be predicted and
  measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles.

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• Knowledge of the essence of being can be found in
  the form of numbers. If this is taken a step
  further, one can say that because mathematics is
  an unseen essence, the essence of being is an
  unseen characteristic that can be encountered by
  the study of mathematics.

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• One of Pythagoras' beliefs was that the essence
  of being is number. Thus, being relies on
  stability of all things that create the universe.
  
• Things like health relied on a stable proportion
  of elements too much or too little of one thing
  causes an imbalance that makes a being unhealthy.

46

• ????the soul were located in the brain and not
  the heart. He himself claimed to have lived four
  lives that he could remember in detail, and heard
  the cry of his dead friend in the bark of a dog.
• ?????????(??)???

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• ????????,???????,??????????????
• ?????????????
• ?????,?????
• ?????,??????????
• ????????
• ??????,????????(???? vs.????)
• ???????,????????
• ????????
• ???????????,???????????
• ?????,??????????
• ????????????
• ?????????
• ????????????

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Pluralist SchoolEmpedocles

• 493-433 BC
• citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek colony in Sicily

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• the origin of the cosmogenic theory of the four
  classical elements
• all matter is made up of four elements water,
  earth, air and fire. Empedocles called these the
  four "roots" the term "element" (st???e???)
• Apart from these four roots, Empedocles
  postulated something called Love (f???a) to
  explain the attraction of different forms of
  matter, and of something called Strife (?e????)
  to account for their separation
• Love and Strife explain their variation and
  harmony

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Pluralist SchoolAnaxagoras

• 500-438 BC
• Ionia, ????

51

• he may have been a soldier of the Persian army
  when Clazomenae was suppressed during the Ionia
  Revolt
• ??????Pericles??
• He attempted to give a scientific account of
  eclipse, meteors, rainbows and the sun, which he
  described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than
  the Peloponnese. The heavenly bodies, he
  asserted, were masses of stone torn from the
  earth and ignited by rapid rotation. However,
  these theories brought him into collision with
  the popular faith Anaxagoras' views on such
  things as heavenly bodies were considered
  "dangerous."
• About 450 Anaxagoras was arrested by Pericles'
  political opponents on a charge of contravening
  the established religion (some say the charge was
  one of Medism). It took Pericles' power of
  persuasion to secure his release. Even so he was
  forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in
  Ionia (c. 434-433 BC).

52

• All things have existed from the beginning. But
  originally they existed in infinitesimally small
  fragments of themselves, endless in number and
  inextricably combined.
• All things existed in this mass, but in a
  confused and indistinguishable form. There were
  the seeds (spermata) or miniatures of corn and
  flesh and gold in the primitive mixture but
  these parts, of like nature with their wholes had
  to be eliminated from the complex mass before
  they could receive a definite name and character.
  
• Mind arranged the segregation of like from
  unlike. This peculiar thing, called Mind (Nous),
  was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass,
  but, unlike the logos of Heraclitus, it stood
  pure and independent (mounos ef eoutou), a thing
  of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations
  and everywhere the same. This subtle agent,
  possessed of all knowledge and power, is
  especially seen ruling in all the forms of life.

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• Mind causes motion. It rotated the primitive
  mixture, starting in one corner or point, and
  gradually extended until it gave distinctness and
  reality to the aggregates of like parts, working
  something like a centrifuge, and eventually
  creating the known cosmos. But even after it had
  done its best, the original intermixture of
  things was not wholly overcome. No one thing in
  the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the
  blow of an axe, from the rest of things.

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from original chaos to present arrangements

• Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the
  stages in the process. The division into cold
  mist and warm ether first broke the spell of
  confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave
  rise to water, earth and stones. The seeds of
  life which continued floating in the air were
  carried down with the rains and produced
  vegetation. Animals, including man, sprang from
  the warm and moist clay.
• If these things be so, then the evidence of the
  senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to
  see things coming into being and passing from it
  but reflection tells us that decease and growth
  only mean a new aggregation (sugkrisis) and
  disruption (diakrisis). (?????)Thus Anaxagoras
  distrusted the senses, and gave the preference to
  the conclusions of reflection.

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??

• Anaxagoras marked a turning-point in the history
  of philosophy. With him speculation passes from
  the colonies of Greece to settle at Athens. By
  the theory of minute constituents of things, and
  his emphasis on mechanical processes in the
  formation of order, he paved the way for the
  atomic theory.
• However, his enunciation of the order that comes
  from an intelligent mind suggested the theory
  that nature is the work of design.

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Atomist School of PluralistsLeucippus

• ??Empedocles?Anaxagoras??,Abdera
• Nothing happens at random (maten), but everything
  from reason (ek logou) and by necessity.

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Atomist School of PluralistsDemocritus

• 460-360 BC
• Abdera in Thrace
• Atoma
• 'he prefers to discover a causality rather than
  become a king of Persia'.

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????

• Of knowledge there are two forms, one legitimate,
  one bastard. To the bastard belong all this
  group sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The
  other is legitimate and separate from that.
• When the bastard can no longer see any smaller,
  or hear, or smell, or taste, or perceive by
  touch, but finer matters have to be examined,
  then comes the legitimate, since it has a finer
  organ of perception. (Fr. 11 Sextus, Adv. Math.
  VII, 138).
• But we in actuality grasp nothing for certain,
  but what shifts in accordance with the condition
  of the body and of the things (atoms) which enter
  it and press upon it. (Fr. 9 Sextus Adv. Math.
  VII 136).

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??

• different tastes were a result of differently
  shaped atoms in contact with the tongue.
• Smells and sounds could be explained similarly.
  Vision works by the eye receiving "images" or
  "effluences" of bodies that are emanated.
• Sweet exists by convention, bitter by convention,
  color by convention but in reality atoms and the
  void alone exist.
• senses could not provide a direct or certain
  knowledge of the world. In his words, "It is
  necessary to realize that by this principle man
  is cut off from the real."

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??

• Though intelligence is allowed to explain the
  organization of the world, according to
  Democritus, he does give place for the existence
  of a soul, which he contends is composed of
  exceedingly fine and spherical atoma.
• He holds that, "spherical atoma move because it
  is their nature never to be still, and that as
  they move they draw the whole body along with
  them, and set it in motion."
• In this way, he viewed soul-atoma as being
  similar to fire-atoma small, spherical, capable
  of penetrating solid bodies and good examples of
  spontaneous motion.

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Sophists

• Kleisthenes???(509-507)???????????,???????????
• ?????Pericles?????(460-430)???????????????????
• ???????????(?????????)
• ??????????

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?? vs.????

• 1. ????????????
• 2. ?????????????

• ??????????????????????????????????????????????
• Sophist ????????????????
• ?????????,??????

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Sophist??Protagoras

• 484-411 BC
• ??????ATHEN
• Man is the measure of all things

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• Man is the measure of all things of things which
  are, that they are, and of things which are not,
  that they are not (???????????,?????? )
• Man????
• Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing
  whether they exist or not or of what sort they
  may be, because of the obscurity of the subject,
  and the brevity of human life

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Gorgias

• 483-375

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Nihilistic arguments

• Nothing exists
• Even if something exists, nothing can be known
  about it and
• Even if something can be known about it,
  knowledge about it can't be communicated to
  others.
• der erste, dass nichts ist der zweite, dass,
  auch wenn ist, es dem Menschen nicht erfassbar
  ist, und drittens, dass, auch wenn es erfassbar
  ist, nicht dem anderen mitteilbar und erklärbar
  ist.

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Socrates

• 484-411 BC
• Sophist or philosopher
• virtue is Knowledge

68

• Xenopon Plato???
• ???(Chaerephon)?Delphi???????????????????????????
  ???????????????????????????????????????????????
  ???????????,????????????,???????????,????????????
  ??????????????????????(he was wise only insofar
  as "that what I don't know, I don't think I
  know." )?

69

• ???????????????????????????????,????????????
• ??????????,?????????????????????????????,?????????
  ??????,??????????,???????????
• ????????????,???????????,????????????????,????????
  ?????????????????????????????????????,????????????
  ???????????????????????????????,??????????????????
  ??

70

• MethodeDialectics?????
• ???(µa?a) ??
• ??????????Virtue is knowledge ??,????????
• ??????,?????????,??????????????????,?????????????
  ??
• ???????????????????????????????,??????,???????

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??

• Aristippus of Cyrene(???????)???Protagras,????(Hed
  onism)?I own, Im not owned. ??Theodorus,
  Annikeris, Hegesias, Euemerus__?????
• Antistenes of Athen, ?Cynic school
  (?Kynosarges??????),??Diogenes of
  Sinope??????????,???????__??????(????)__??????
• Euclid of Megara?Socrtaes Eleatic school
  (Parmenides)??????????????Zeno???????????????????