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Title: Bauxite and Aluminum: A Cradle to Grave Analysis


1
Bauxite and Aluminum A Cradle to Grave Analysis
  • By Greg Zelder and Sebastian Africano
  • Race, Poverty, and the Environment
  • Professor Raquel R. Pinderhughes
  • Urban Studies Program
  • San Francisco State University
  • Spring, 2003
  • Public has permission to use the material herein,
    but only if author, course, university, and
    professor are cited

2
  • This presentation focuses on the extraction and
    refinement of Bauxite, followed by the
    production, consumption, and disposal of
    Aluminum.
  • It is designed to enhance the readers awareness
    of the realities behind aluminum consumption by
    examining the effects of its production on the
    people and environment of the planet. It takes
    you through the cradle to grave lifecycle of
    aluminum, paying particular attention to the
    social, environmental, and public health impacts
    of the processes associated with producing it.

3
Contents, Part I, slides 4 - 47
  • Geology
  • History of Bauxite Use
  • Social Impacts of Bauxite Mining
  • Case Studies
  • India
  • Haiti
  • General Impacts of Bauxite Mining
  • Environmental Impacts of Bauxite Mining

4
Contents Part II, slides 48 - 85
  • Distribution of Bauxite
  • Aluminum Smelting Inputs Processes
  • Spent Pot Lining (SPL)
  • Energy and Resource Use in Al Smelting
  • Aluminum Smelter Emissions
  • Exposure to Fluorides
  • Exposure to Aluminum
  • Aluminum in Food and Water
  • Aluminum in Medicine
  • From aluminum Metals to Consumer Products
  • Aluminum and Recycling
  • Conclusion

5
Geology of Bauxite
  • Bauxite ore is the most abundant element found in
    the earth's crust, although the word bauxite is
    used to describe any material that contains more
    than 32 percent alumina1.

A Bauxite rock with impurities
  • http//www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/Pictures/alco
    a_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

6
Geology of Bauxite
  • Dislodged rock particulates in areas of heavy
    rainfall percolate down to the water table, where
    aluminum silicate compounds accumulate and
    pressure causes them to coalesce.
  • In this form the compounds are what we consider
    bauxite2.

7
Geology of Bauxite
  • There are three main structural types of bauxite
  • Gibbsite
  • Böhmite
  • Diaspore
  • Each of these three types of bauxite has
    different characteristics that make them more or
    less desirable for mining purposes.

8
Geology of Bauxite
  • Gibbsite has a maximum alumina content of 65.4
  • Böhmite and diaspore both have a maximum alumina
    content of 853.
  • Of the bauxites currently being mined, the
    dominant form is gibbsite, followed by a mixture
    of gibbsite and böhmite.
  • The main impurities are compounds of iron,
    silicon and titanium4.

9
Geology of Bauxite
  • The three structural differences of Bauxite can
    be further categorized into two groups, the
    difference being in the water content of each5
  • Monohydrates
  • trihydrates
  • Trihydrates are comprised of gibbsite and böhmite
    and are found in Latin America and Caribbean
    areas6.
  • Deposits of desirable bauxite occur as flat
    layers lying near the surface and may cover many
    miles - the average thickness of these layers is
    4-6 meters7.

10
History of Bauxite Use
  • Bauxite was used long before it was ever refined
    into aluminum.
  • In Guyana it was used to build homes with the
    so-called "brown-mud" that would later be called
    bauxite.
  • These deposits were also used to make pots and
    plates, along with using it as a plaster for
    homes8 .

11
History of Bauxite Use
  • It was not until 1825 that western cultures
    devised a way to make aluminum from bauxite. The
    Danish Chemist, Hans Oerstad was able to isolate
    a small amount of aluminum from bauxite9 .
  • Over the next few decades new procedures were
    introduced that lowered the cost of aluminum,
    however it was still used only for jewelry
    purposes10 .

12
History of Bauxite Use
  • It was not until 1886 that the Hall-Heroult
    electrolytic process, which is used to make
    aluminum from alumina, was discovered.
  • In 1889 Karl Bayer introduced the Bayer process
    of extracting mass amounts of alumina from
    bauxite11 .

13
History of Bauxite Use
  • Four to six tons of bauxite are needed to produce
    two tons of alumina which in turn produces one
    ton of aluminum12 .
  • In 1998, the total area mined for bauxite was
    1591 hectares (3929.77 acres) of which 80 was
    wildlife habitat, 175 hectares (432.25 acres) was
    tropical rainforest and 577 hectares (1425.19
    acres) possessed important fauna species13.

14
Alumina Production
  • According to Persaud, in the Bayer Alumina
    reduction process
  • "The bauxite is first ground and mixed with
    chemicals (sodium hydroxide/caustic soda, lime).
    Then it is pumped into huge pressure containers
    and heated, after which more chemicals (lime to
    regenerate caustic soda) are added, and hydrated
    alumina crystallizes from the solution after
    being seeded with other (trihydrate alumina)
    crystals. These crystals are then washed and
    heated at very high temperatures to drive off the
    moisture until a white powder remains. This is
    the alumina or aluminum oxide14,15

15
Alumina Production, cont.
  • The OSHA filed Material Safety Data Sheet for
    Caustic Soda lists it as a highly reactive
    alkaloid dangerous to human health.
  • Effects of exposure to Caustic Soda
  • ACUTE OVEREXPOSURE Corrosive to all body tissues
    with which it comes in contact.
  • CHRONIC OVEREXPOSURE Chronic local effect may
    consist of multiple areas of superficial
    destruction of the skin or of primary irritant
    dermatitis.
  • Inhalation of dust, spray or mist may result in
    varying degrees of irritation or damage to the
    respiratory tract tissues and an increased
    susceptibility to respiratory illness16.

16
Alumina Production, cont
  • Courtesy of http//www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/
    Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

17
The World's Bauxite Sources
  • Courtesy of http//www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/
    Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

18
Social Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • the social impacts of bauxite mining and
    production are harder to quantify.
  • One must look at the societies that were living
    in bauxite rich areas before mining started, and
    also what happened to those societies after the
    development of a mining operation.
  • In many cases, the societies that were living on
    the land that was found to be rich in bauxite
    were indigenous cultures that had lived on the
    land for centuries prior to the discovery.

19
Social Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Upon the discovery of bauxite, however, the
    people and cultures that relied on the land were
    displaced at the hands of the government.
  • Young people were forced to go to urban areas to
    make a living for the families, the land
    previously depended upon for agriculture was
    ravaged, and basically the fabric of the cultures
    was torn apart.

20
Social Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • How and why does this happen?
  • Is it necessary?
  • What is the role of the governments in these
    situations?
  • To answer these questions one must look at
    specific cases.

21
Case Study India
  • In India the "problem" of indigenous cultures
    occupying bauxite-rich land has become a flash
    point of violence among the population and
    government.
  • In 1998 the Norwegian company Norsk-Hydro found
    bauxite in Orissa, a state in India. The problem
    for the company was that 2100 families in 24
    villages stood in the way17.
  • Out of Orissa's 32 million people, seven million
    are aboriginal, and are concentrated in the
    mineral-rich Raigada, Koraput and Kalahandi
    districts where they make up 80 percent of the
    population18.

22
Case Study India
  • In Orissa alone there are nearly 150 million
    acres of once arable or homestead land that is
    currently being mined and there are an estimated
    50,000 environmental refugees19.
  • Tribal or aboriginal people in India only make up
    8 percent of the population but account for more
    than 40 percent of it's displaced people20.

23
Case Study India
  • In India the tribes, not the central government,
    control tribal land. This means that the tribes
    must decide whether the mining companies can be
    allowed to mine.
  • A local environmental group in the area organized
    a poll that showed that 96 percent of the people
    in the district were against the bauxite
    project21 .

24
Case Study India
  • The police in the area have taken up arms against
    the local people, apparently working for the
    company's interests, and have arrested nearly
    every land owner at least once and pressured them
    to sign away their lands22 .

25
Case Study India
  • In December of 2000 there were riots against the
    company and their plans to mine the region, in
    which two men were killed by police23 .
  • Human rights organizations believe that
    Norsk-Hydro was complicit in the killings because
    as the police have pressured the local people to
    sign away their lands, they have essentially
    become an unofficial subsidiary of the
    corporation.
  • If the corporation is found to be complicit it
    would be in violation of principles one and two
    of the United Nations Global Compact24 .

26
Case Study India
  • Principle one of the Compact states that
    corporations agree to support and respect the
    protection of international human rights within
    their sphere of influence
  • Principle two requires corporations to make sure
    their own corporations are not complicit in human
    rights abuses. 25

27
Case Study India
  • These allegations point to the larger problem of
    how large transnational corporations interact
    with local peoples in their quest for natural
    resources and raw material.
  • Local communities are not seen as being
    inherently needed by the country rather, all
    that is seen is the negligence of the local
    people in not taking advantage of the resources
    that they own.

28
Case Study India
  • Because of this perceived negligence, foreign
    investors see the situation as one in which it is
    their duty to the global economy (not to mention
    their pocket books) that they exploit these
    areas.
  • In many cases the plight of the indigenous
    cultures are not taken into account by either the
    company or the government, leaving one to
    consider the interactions between the respective
    governments and corporations.

29
Case Study Haiti
  • Following the discovery of Bauxite in Jamaica in
    1943, companies were looking into the possibility
    of bauxite being present in other Latin America
    islands.
  • In the summer of that year Reynolds Metals
    Company found bauxite in Haiti and proceeded to
    sign a concession contract with the Haitian
    government26 .

30
Case Study Haiti
  • Like most contracts between transnational
    corporations and governments of less developed
    countries, the contract was very one-sided in
    favor of the corporation.
  • The contract granted Reynolds exclusive rights
    of privilege of making researches and of
    exploiting bauxite minerals and all other
    minerals containing or which may contain
    aluminum, with practically the entire area of
    Haiti being specified27 .

31
Case Study Haiti
  • The agreement was to extend to 60 years after the
    signing, forcing the government to accept terms
    at an early stage of the bargaining process which
    may not have been suitable in the future.
  • The main factor behind the acceptance of these
    terms was the fact that the United States
    government gave support to Reynolds negotiations
    for two main reasons
  • demand for aluminum had grown due to World War II
    and,
  • at the time, the U.S. government was trying to
    break the monopoly of Alcoa in the aluminum
    industry28 .

32
Case Study Haiti
  • Along with the nudging of the U.S. government,
    there were other reasons that the Haitian
    government believed that the contract would be
    good for the country
  • Included in the contract was the promise of
    employment (even though the company only had to
    hire unskilled workers and no training for
    managerial or administrative positions was
    offered)29.
  • The country was to also receive a royalty payment
    tied to the production of bauxite - at the time
    the royalty amounted to 30.5 cents per 1000
    kilos30.
  • In 1963 the contract was renegotiated and the
    royalty was actually lowered to 20 cents per
    ton31!

33
Case Study Haiti
  • The government also believed that the company
    would add to the countrys infrastructure.
  • All the country received in terms of
    infrastructure was an 8-mile road connecting the
    mine to the port, which was only used to ship the
    refined alumina to the United States - the road
    had little effect on the economy as a whole32 .
  • The company also built a power plant, water
    supply infrastructure, and a hospital to be used
    by the company and its employees only33 .

34
Case Study Haiti
  • Along with these oversights by the government,
    the biggest, in relation to the population, was
    that the government agreed to help prevent
    strikes, creating an unsettling alliance to stop
    even the most basic forms of labor empowerment.
  • It is necessary to mention that the number of
    people employed by Reynolds was small in relation
    to the rest of the workforce (approximately 0.5)
    of 45,000 workers34.

35
Case Study Haiti
  • This kind of agreement reinforces the notion of
    complicity when it comes to the dealings of
    governments, especially those in developing
    nations who are dependant on industrialization,
    and transnational corporations who have no
    accountability to the citizens of the countries
    in which they extract their resources.

36
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • In the early days of bauxite mining, hydraulic
    strip mining was used to retrieve the bauxite35
  • Hydraulic strip mining is the process of using
    high-powered streams of water to dislodge rocks
    and minerals that are then collected downstream.
  • This process is very damaging to the environment
    because of the large amount of silt that is
    created and that flows into nearby waterways.

37
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • With time it was shown that a much more
    economically viable way of mining bauxite was to
    simply create an open pit where the bauxite,
    along with the surrounding materials could be
    hauled away36.

38
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
Digging Up the Bauxite (Along with everything
else)
  • Courtesy of http//www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/
    Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

39
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
The Bucket from the previous slide
  • Courtesy of http//www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/
    Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

40
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Bauxite is now generally extracted with this
    method by removing the topsoil and then hauling
    away the 4-6 meters of bauxite underneath.
  • 80 of the world's bauxite is mined from blanket
    deposits where open-pit mining is used37.
  • The other 20 comes from Southern Europe and
    Hungary where underground excavation is
    utilized38.

41
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • According to the industry, after the mining is
    completed the habitat is returned to its normal
    state39.
  • This may be the case, but the original disruption
    is so great that one may wonder if it is possible
    to return a mined area to its original state.

42
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Because of the high alumina content of bauxite
    there is no need to use highly polluting
    procedures in the separation such as those in
    other industries (e.g. copper or iron)40.
  • The main pollutants that are released are caustic
    acids which, through spills or dumping, make
    their way to creeks and rivers and cause
    "fish-kill, where "dead fish can be seen
    floating on the water,41.

43
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • The most noticeable impacts of mining and
    production is red-dust (sometimes referred to as
    red-mud).
  • Red-dust is mainly a by-product of the Bayer
    process, composed of the impurities in the
    bauxite that are not dissolved in the refining
    process.
  • The amount that is generated per ton of alumina
    produced varies between 0.3 tons to 2.5 tons,
    depending on the grade of bauxite used42
  • Red-dust is non-toxic, although it is highly
    alkaline, but the lakes that it is stored in have
    been noted to produce a "harsh smell that is
    offensive and suffocating43
  • The dust is so fine that it "pollutes the air and
    finally settles in the most secret parts of
    homes,44"

44
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Recently an Australian researcher found a way to
    utilize red-dust in an ecologically sound manner.
  • Instead of just dumping the dust into specially
    formed lakes, he mixes it with seawater to make
    an alkaline sludge.
  • This sludge can then be used to "mop up" the
    heavy metals left in the tailings of other mining
    operations45.

45
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Another type of pollution that is produced by
    bauxite mining is noise pollution from all of the
    machinery that is needed and from the production
    facilities that run 24 hours a day46.
  • Most workers from the mines and production
    facilities live near their worksites with their
    families - the operations run incessantly,
    creating a near-urban racket in otherwise rural
    areas.

46
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Environmental damage also comes in the form of
    increased development.
  • In Haiti the Reynolds corporation built an 8-mile
    road from the production facility to the port, a
    power plant, water supply buildings and a
    hospital, not to mention housing for all of the
    workers, all in a very remote part of the tiny
    island-nation that hadn't been developed before47
    .
  • The development disrupted major portions of the
    tropical forest surrounding the bauxite mine48.

47
Impacts associated with Bauxite Mining
  • Generally speaking, alumina (Al2O3 - aluminum
    oxide) is the base input material used to make
    aluminum for all applications.
  • After all of the production of alumina is
    complete, it is shipped to industrialized nations
    where it is made into aluminum.
  • The shipping involves immense fossil fuel
    consumption and emissions and, less obviously,
    involves the transport of ballast water
    contaminated with foreign bacteria and sea life
    to the industrialized port destination, causing
    irreparable ecological harm.

48
Distribution of Bauxite
  • After its production from raw bauxite, the
    powdered alumina is transported to a primary
    aluminum smelter.
  • Alumina produced in East Asia could be sent to a
    smelter in the Pacific Northwest an ocean
    journey of 5000 miles. Alumina produced in
    Jamaica could be shipped to a smelter in
    Tennessee a journey of only 1400 miles by
    comparison.
  • Different aluminum products call for varying
    compositional percentages of specific alloys,
    which could determine which plant receives what
    quantities of alumina, and from where.

49
Below is a map of Alcoas Worldwide Operating
Locationswww.alcoa.com/globa/en/about_alcoa/map/g
lobalmap.aspl
50
Aluminum Smelting Inputs and Processes
  • Alumina (AL2O3 Aluminum Oxide) is reduced to
    pure aluminum metal through the Hall-Heroult
    electrolytic process named after its inventors.
  • The alumina is dissolved by passing an electric
    current between two nodes a carbon anode ()
    made of petroleum coke and pitch, and a cathode
    (-), the thick carbon lining of the electrolytic
    cell, or pot49.
  • The pot contains both the aluminum oxide powder
    and a molten cryolite-based electrolyte, sodium
    aluminum fluoride, which is used as the conductor
    of electricity50.
  • The electric current is passed between the two
    nodes, breaking the aluminum and oxygen bond of
    alumina, and leaving pure aluminum metal and
    oxygen the latter which combines with the
    carbon anode to form CO2, which is released into
    the atmosphere51.

51
Aluminum Smelting Inputs and Processes
  • Aluminum is formed at 900C - a temperature that
    requires 150,000 amperes of electricity to be
    reached52.
  • Once the aluminum in the pot is molten, it is
    siphoned off into holding furnaces, either to be
    mixed to an alloy specification, or cleaned and
    cast into ingots the primary unit of aluminum
    fabrication53.
  • Pots are set up in lines of 150-300 pots, each
    pot producing between 360-2350 kg of Al per
    day54.
  • Aluminum Ingots www.ingot.alcan.com

52
Spent Pot Lining (SPL)
  • The carbon cathode lining in the pots experience
    constant wear and are periodically discarded.
  • Spent pot lining (SPL) is treated as hazardous
    waste because it contains traces of absorbed
    fluoride as well as cyanide, two substances known
    as toxic to humans55.
  • Approximately 20 tons of SPL are produced for
    every 1000 tons of aluminum produced its
    disposal is the largest environmental problem of
    the aluminum industry56.
  • Currently SPL is disposed of in landfills, but
    worldwide concern about the safety of this
    practice, due to leaching potential, has caused
    it to be stockpiled around the world for later
    use or disposal57
  • Research is currently being conducted, having
    reached costs of 26 million, to determine if the
    SPL could be re-used as the molten electrolytic
    conductor in the smelting process58.

53
Energy and Resource Use in Aluminum Smelting
  • Aluminum smelters are located in areas where
    electricity can be produced in abundance at a
    reasonable price
  • Typically this means locating the smelter near a
    hydroelectric dam, coal source, nuclear energy
    plant, or building an energy source in
    conjunction with and specifically for the
    production facility
  • Over 55 of the energy used in aluminum
    production worldwide comes from hydro-electric
    sources59.
  • Chief Joseph Dam, Columbia River, Washington
    Second Largest Hydroelectric Dam in the United
    States
  • http//www.nws.usace.army.mil/opdiv/cj/Chiefjo.htm

54
Energy and Aluminum, cont
  • To produce one kilogram of aluminum from alumina
    requires approximately 15.7 Kilowatt Hours of
    electricity -- this is roughly the same amount
    used to power an average California home per
    day60,61.
  • In the U.S. aluminum industrys prime,
    electricity consumption rates for aluminum
    producers matched that of New York City -- it is
    currently producing 1,000,000 metric tons less
    per year than it did 5 years ago, due to
    increased energy costs, market fluctuations, and
    subsequent plant closings in the Pacific
    Northwest62.
  • The U.S. produced about 11.4 billion kilograms of
    aluminum in 2001, equating to the use of roughly
    179 billion Kilowatt hours of electricity63.

55
Energy and Aluminum, cont
  • Hydroelectric dams, while being one of the
    cleaner forms of electricity production, also
    flood natural habitats upon construction, erode
    riverbeds, alter natural flooding and flow
    patterns of rivers, inhibit natural fish runs,
    and displace communities around the world
  • In Brazil, where 93 of energy comes from
    hydroelectricity, a total land area larger than
    the country of Belgium has been flooded by dam
    building, displacing countless communities of
    indigenous peoples64.
  • In pristine southern Chile, roughly 25,000 acres
    of native habitat and 40 families are threatened
    by the intended construction of three
    hydroelectric dams designed to power the proposed
    Noranda Alumysa Aluminum Smelter65.

56
Energy and Aluminum, cont
  • Combustion of coal is the second major energy
    source for aluminum production.
  • The Alcoa Aluminum Smelter in Rockdale, TX
    requires 36 million pounds of coal to fuel its
    operations EACH DAY66.
  • It gets its coal from the Sandow Lignite Coal
    Mine in Central Texas, removing 250 vertical feet
    of soil in 100 cubic yard scoops at a time to
    reach the coal a common dump truck we would
    recognize at a construction site carries between
    5-7 cubic yards67.

57
  • In one year, a typical 500 Megawatt coal fired
    power plant
  • Burns 1.4 million tons of coal
  • Uses 2.2 billion gallons of water
  • Generates 10,000 tons of sulfur dioxide and
    10,200 tons of nitrogen oxide
  • Produces
  • 3.7 million tons of carbon dioxide
  • 500 tons of small particulate matter
  • 220 tons of hydrocarbons
  • 720 tons of carbon monoxide
  • 125,000 tons of ash
  • 193,000 tons of sludge
  • 170 pounds of mercury
  • 225 pounds of arsenic
  • 114 pounds of lead and
  • 4 pounds of cadmium68

58
Aluminum Smelter Emissions Health Effects on
Human, Animal, and Plant Communities
  • The electrolytic reduction cells (pot line) are
    the major source of the air emissions in an
    aluminum smelter, including gaseous and
    particulate fluorides, sulfur and carbon
    dioxides, and various dusts, with the gaseous and
    particulate fluorides being of prime concern69.

59
Exposure to Fluorides
  • Around the globe, a number of cases have been
    documented illustrating the negative effects of
    fluoride emissions from aluminum production.
  • The International Program on Chemical Safety
    (IPCS), a program of the World Health
    Organization, has listed the effects of fluorides
    on biotic communities as completely destructive,
    absorbed through the respiratory or
    gastrointestinal tract of humans and/or animals
    and deposited almost exclusively in the bones
    and teeth70.

60
Exposure to Fluorides, cont
  • Unicef describes the symptoms of skeletal
    fluorosis as follows
  • Chronic intake of excessive fluoride can lead to
    the severe and permanent bone and joint
    deformations of skeletal fluorosis. Early
    symptoms include sporadic pain and stiffness of
    joints, headache, stomach ache, and muscle
    weakness The next stage is osteosclerosis
    (hardening and calcifying of the bones) and
    finally the spine, major joints, muscles, and
    nervous system are damaged71.

61
Exposure to Fluorides, cont
  • In India, China, and parts of Northern, Eastern,
    Central, and South Africa, the occurrence of
    endemic skeletal fluorosis has been classified as
    high, by the WHOs IPCS program, due to
    elevated levels of fluoride in drinking water,
    preparation of food in fluoridated water, and
    burning fluoride rich coal72.
  • A victim of skeletal fluorosis http//nalgonda.org
    /images/flourine/pic19.jpg

62
Exposure to Fluorides, cont
  • A study done in the Indian State of Orissa cites
    that aluminum smelting, which consumes 30 of
    the power produced in the region, has
    contaminated the groundwater around aluminum
    smelters...the state pollution control board
    tested water wells and ponds (local to the plant)
    and found fluoride well in excess of the
    regulatory limit73.
  • In this particular vicinity of Orissa, an
    estimated 67 of men and 64 of women suffer from
    fluorosis, and cattle populations have dropped
    precipitously as a result of over-fluoridation74
    .

63
Exposure to Fluorides, cont
  • A villager living in view of a Chalco (Aluminum
    Corporation of China) aluminum smelter in Tibet,
    was quoted in an article on the Fluoride Action
    Network website as saying
  • The smoke settles on the hillsides. If we
    let our sheep or donkeys out to graze, their
    teeth turn yellow and brittle, then fall out.
    Our animals starve, and we lose our
    livelihood75.

64
Exposure to Fluorides, cont
  • The IPCS report also states that anthropogenic
    sources of fluoride have been shown to be
    correlated with damage to local terrestrial plant
    communities ...fluoride induced effects, such as
    lameness and tooth damage, have also been
    reported in wild ungulates, such as deer, and in
    small mammals close to anthropogenic sources of
    fluoride76.

65
Exposure to Fluorides, cont
  • Workers in the aluminum production industry are
    also at great risk of being exposed to fluorides.
  • Risk of exposure, to a detrimental end, usually
    depends on the degrees of precaution exercised by
    both the workers and the plant. The use of
    protective equipment and good ventilation during
    work lessen the occupational risk.

66
Exposure to Aluminum
  • The IPCS report on Aluminum maintains that
    aluminum concentrations in the air that would
    affect the general public are low and
    negligible77.
  • Most of the aluminum in the air enters the
    atmosphere as soil derived dust, as aluminum
    represents 8 of the earths crust by
    composition78.
  • While exposure to aluminum dust particles for
    process and production workers are estimated at
    lt1mg/8hr shift, and for welders 40mg/8hr shift,
    exposure for the general population is estimated
    at 40 micrograms daily (1mg 1000 micrograms)79.

67
Exposure to Aluminum, cont
  • Acute exposures to aluminum dust in laboratory
    animals were shown to produce developmental
    problems, mutagenic effects, and neurotoxic
    effects including
  • skeletal malformations,
  • interference with DNA replication, and
  • learning performance impairment80
  • These effects, however, were a result of acute
    exposures, which produce more marked effects than
    gradual exposure over time.
  • Effects of chronic exposure upon process and
    production workers can include shortness of
    breath, weakness, and cough, potentially
    increasing the risk of emphysema and lung
    fibrosis81.

68
Exposure to Aluminum, cont
  • Excessive exposure to aluminum has also been
    positively correlated to Alzheimers Disease in
    various studies, but a definitive link and
    subsequent consensus still eludes the medical
    community.
  • Insoluble aluminosilicate (the naturally occuring
    element combination of aluminum and silicon) can
    be made into a toxic, soluble aluminum ion (Al3)
    in an acidic condition, thereby allowing it to
    be absorbed by the bloodstream upon its
    consumption in drinking water and foods82.
  • As the function of the Blood Brain Barrier
    retards with age, Al3 in the bloodstream is able
    to enter and accumulate in the brain83.
  • The incidence of aluminum in the brains of
    Alzheimers victims has caused the concern of a
    connection to be raised, but no definitive link
    has been established.

69
Aluminum in Food and Water
  • Exposure to aluminum is unavoidable it is a
    ubiquitous, naturally occurring, and abundant
    element.
  • 95 of aluminum intake by humans takes place in
    the consumption of food and water84.
  • 90 of this aluminum is excreted by normal human
    processes within 4 months85.
  • The remaining 10 is either secreted, or absorbed
    by the skeletal or renal systems, or by the
    brain86.

70
Aluminum in Food and Water, cont
  • Examples of how aluminum is present in food
    include
  • The use of aluminum ammonium sulfate as a
    buffering agent used to maintain acidity during
    food processing
  • Aluminum calcium silicate as an anti-caking agent
    to prevent food powders from compacting
  • Aluminum compounds added to frozen strawberries,
    maraschino cherries, and pickles to improve their
    appearance
  • Aluminum salts sometimes added to processed
    cheeses and beer
  • Naturally aluminum rich foods including potato
    skins, spinach, prune juice, and teas87
  • Consumption of aluminum in conjunction with
    certain acidic foods and drinks, such as orange
    juice, coffee, and wine, significantly increases
    the uptake of aluminum by the bodys systems88.

71
Aluminum in Food and Water, cont
  • Surface water treatment plants use aluminum
    sulfate to treat harmful colloidal matter
    particles and water born microorganisms by
    causing them to coagulate, thus making them
    easier to filter out89.
  • A study by the Australian Institute for
    Biomedical Research determined that over a period
    of seven or eight decades of drinking aluminum
    treated tap water, a microgram of aluminum would
    accumulate in the human brain90.

72
Aluminum in Medicine
  • Aluminum hydroxide is used widely as an antacid
    to reduce gastrointestinal distress91.
  • Aluminum intake from antacids results in
    ingestion levels of 840 - 5000mg/day (recommended
    max. weekly intake for a 130 lb adult is
    420mg/day)92.
  • Aluminum salts are used to stimulate the level
    and duration of immunity boosting antibodies
    provided by a vaccine93.
  • Also, soluble aluminum compounds are used in
    antiperspirants forming an aluminum hydroxide
    plug within the human sweat duct94.

73
From Aluminum Metals to Consumer Products
  • As described earlier in this report, once the
    aluminum in the pot is molten, it is siphoned off
    into holding furnaces, either to be blended to an
    alloy specification or cleaned and cast into
    ingots.
  • Ingots are grouped by specification and sold to
    the markets in which aluminum is used.
  • Primarily this includes the transportation sector
    (32), the packaging sector (21), the
    construction sector (13), and the electrical
    sector95.

74
NOTE
  • The effects associated with the production of
    these consumer goods is secondary to the purposes
    of this report, therefore will not be discussed.
    The reader should instead note how aluminum is
    used, and where the opportunities lie for
    producing and using less of it.

75
The Transportation Sector
  • The transportation sector is the largest market
    for aluminum in the United States96.
  • Aluminum recently passed plastic as the third
    most-used material in automobiles97.
  • Studies show that replacing 2 pounds of steel
    with 1 pound of aluminum to make a vehicle
    lighter can save 20 pounds of CO2 emissions over
    the life of that vehicle98.
  • The body of cars as well as components of the
    engine are now typically made, in part, from
    aluminum99.

76
The Transportation Sector, cont
  • Aluminum is the primary material used in
    aircraft, subway cars, freight railroad cars, and
    light high-speed-rail cars as well.
  • Aluminum or aluminum alloys are used in airplanes
    to lower the planes weight, save fuel, reduce
    emissions, and increase the planes payload100.
  • Over 80 of an aircrafts weight is aluminum101.

77
The Packaging Sector
  • Containers and packaging rank second in the
    market for aluminum use.
  • Aluminums lightness helps reduce the costs of
    transporting packaged consumer goods and further
    reduces emissions from transporting goods.
  • Aluminum is touted as an indispensable packaging
    item because of the benefits it possesses
  • Heat conductivity - Strength
  • Hygiene - Impermeability
  • Non-toxicity - Corrosion resistance
  • Deadfold (stays wrapped around food items without
    needing further sealing)102

78
Aluminum in Cookware
  • Today about half of all cookware sold is made of
    aluminum - the potential for aluminum cookware to
    leach aluminum into foods has been scrutinized
    and debated over for decades103.
  • A recent study done at the University of Surrey
    in Australia have found levels of leached
    aluminum between 1.5-3 parts per million for
    wine, and 9.4 ppm in apple juice stored in
    aluminum containers for two years104.
  • Soft drinks in aluminum cans show levels of
    aluminum 6 times higher than the same soft drink
    stored in bottles105.
  • Beef cooked in aluminum increases its aluminum
    content by 38 times106.

79
Aluminum and Recycling
  • The most promising, and perhaps the most
    controversial aspect surrounding aluminum is the
    fact that it can be recycled indefinitely 2/3
    of the aluminum ever produced since 1886 is still
    in use107!
  • This does not change the fact that between 1990
    and 2000, 7.1 million tons of aluminum cans (only
    cans!) were wasted enough to reproduce the
    worlds commercial air fleet 25 times108!
  • At an avg scrap value of .58/lb, this represents
    8.236 billion in lost revenue just in cans109!

80
Aluminum Cans Wasted in the U.S., 1970 2001
total 903 billion cans
81
Aluminum and Recycling, cont
  • Recycling aluminum saves 95 of the energy used
    to produce aluminum from bauxite mainly because
    it cuts out the energy intensive smelting
    processes110.
  • Recycling also reduces 95 of the greenhouse
    emissions put out by the aluminum industry111.
  • If the 50.7 billion aluminum cans wasted in 2001
    had been recycled, energy equivalent to 16
    million barrels of crude oil would have been
    saved enough to power 2.7 million U.S. homes,
    or over 1 million cars for a year112!
  • Also, emissions of 75,000 tons of sulfur dioxide
    and nitrogen oxide would have been prevented113.

82
Aluminum and Recycling, cont
  • The Bottle Bill Resource Guide states that,
    Bottle bills are a proven, sustainable method of
    capturing beverage bottles and cans for
    recycling. The refund value of the container
    (usually 5 or 10 cents) provides a monetary
    incentive to return the container for
    recycling114.
  • In the 10 states where Bottle Bill legislation
    exists, approximately 85 of cans get recycled,
    compared with about 50 in the remaining 40
    states115.
  • Bottle bills generally shift the costs of litter
    cleanup, recycling and waste disposal from
    government and taxpayers to the producers and
    consumers of beverage containers116.
  • This, in effect, places responsibility on the
    industry that creates a wasteful product in the
    disposal or recycling of that product117.  

83
Aluminum and Recycling, cont
  • A 1996 report by the U.S. Public Interest
    Research Group revealed that the beverage
    industry spent over 14 million dollars between
    1989 and 1994 to defeat any attempts of a
    national bottle bill being passed, outspending
    proponents 301118.
  • Bottle bill opponents, as listed on the Consumer
    Recycling Institutes Bottle Bill Resource Guide,
    include beverage container manufacturers, soft
    drink bottlers, beer, wine and liquor
    distributors and retail grocers119.
  • California Senate Bill 23, which would double
    redemption rates for containers in CA, is
    currently being debated and voted upon. A
    University of California study estimates that its
    passing would boost recycling rates to 80
    diverting approximately 8,058 more tons of
    aluminum from landfill than are diverted
    currently in California120.

84
Conclusion
  • As we have seen, aluminum pervades almost every
    aspect of our society and lives. It affects what
    and how we eat, drink, consume, travel, and live
    day-to-day.
  • This report was designed to inform consumers
    about the processes involved in producing
    aluminum, and how these processes and their
    subsequent effects could be averted through
    recycling and the practice of consuming more
    responsibly.

85
Conclusion, cont
  • As aluminum can be recycled indefinitely without
    degrading in quality, wasting it in the manner
    that we do creates avoidable, unnecessary, and
    immeasurable impacts on the earth, its people,
    and its biotic communities via the destructive
    and resource intensive processes of aluminum
    production.
  • Educating the global public on the negative
    effects of aluminum production and the benefits
    of recycling and conservation will systematically
    increase positive and sustainable practices
    around resource use to the benefit of the entire
    planet.

86
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  • 13. ibid
  • 14. Persaud, Thakoor. Conflicts Between
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87
Bibliography, Part I, cont
  • 15. ibid
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  • 28. ibid
  • 29. ibid

88
Bibliography, Part I, cont
  • 30. ibid
  • 31. ibid
  • 32. ibid
  • 33. ibid
  • 34. ibid
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    Bath Press, Avon. 1987
  • 36. ibid
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  • 38. ibid
  • 39. ibid
  • 40. Barham, Bradford, et al. States, Firms and
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89
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  • 48. ibid

90
Bibliography, Part II
  • 49. World Aluminum Institute www.world-aluminum.or
    g , referenced February 25, 2003
  • 50. ibid
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    of the U.S. Aluminum Industry, July 1997,
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  • 53. ibid
  • 54. ibid
  • 55. Alcoa and Portland Aluminum, Spent Pot
    Lining Treatment and Fluoride Recycling Project,
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  • 57. ibid
  • 58. ibid
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91
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 60. World Aluminum Institute www.world-aluminum.or
    g , referenced February 25, 2003
  • 61. California Energy Commission, Consumer Energy
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  • 62. Ohio State University Research News Archive
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    referenced March 10, 2003
  • 63. U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources
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  • 64. International Rivers Network, World
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92
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 67. ibid
  • 68. Union of Concerned Scientists
    www.ucsusa.org/energy/brf.bene.full.html
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  • 69. CleanTechIndia.com, Environmental Information
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93
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 74. ibid
  • 75. The Fluoride Action Network. The Age
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    Aluminum. World Health Organization, UN
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  • 78. ibid
  • 79. ibid
  • 80. ibid, pp110-137
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94
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 83. ibid
  • 84. International Programme on Chemical Safety
    (ICPS), (1997) Environmental Health Criteria 194
    Aluminum. World Health Organization, UN
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  • 85. ibid, p106
  • 86. Michael Brower, PhD and Warren Leon, PhD
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    Union of Concerned Scientists. Three Rivers
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  • 87. International Programme on Chemical Safety
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    Aluminum. World Health Organization, UN
    Environment Programme, and International Labor
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  • 88. Michael Brower, PhD and Warren Leon, PhD
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95
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 91. World Aluminum Institute www.world-aluminum.or
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    Aluminum. World Health Organization, UN
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  • 95. ibid, and www.semiseek.com/News/press_release3
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  • 96. The Aluminum Association, Inc., Industry
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  • 98. www.semiseek.com/News/press_release3440.htm ,
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  • 99. The Aluminum Association, Inc., Industry
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  • 101. ibid

96
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 102. ibid
  • 103. ibid
  • 104. Michael Brower, PhD and Warren Leon, PhD
    (1999) The Consumers Guide to Effective
    Environmental Choices Practical Advice From the
    Union of Concerned Scientists. Three Rivers
    Press, New York, NY, p 144
  • 105. ibid
  • 106. ibid
  • 107. http//www.alcoa.com/global/en/environment/fu
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    March 10, 2003
  • 109. ibid
  • 110. Semiseek News, The Aluminum Industry
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    , referenced March 10, 2003
  • 111. ibid

97
Bibliography, Part II, cont
  • 112. The Container Recycling Institute, Trashed
    Cans The Global Environmental Impacts of
    Aluminum Can Wasting in America, by Jennifer
    Gitlitz, June 2002. www.container-recycling.org/pu
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    March 10, 2003
  • 113. ibid
  • 114. http//www.bottlebill.org/ , referenced May
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    Environmental Choices Practical Advice From the
    Union of Concerned Scientists. Three Rivers
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  • 118. ibid
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