Title: Sisters of the Soil:
1Sisters of the Soil
- The Work of the
- Womans Land Army
- of America
- during World War I
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3Rose Hayden-Smith
- University of California
- UC ANR/UC Santa Barbara
- Food and Society Policy Fellow
- March 2007
- Updated 5/2008
4The Seeds of Change
- The war, in fact, has shaken the very
foundations of the old Victorian beliefs in the
limited sphere of women to atoms. - --- Helen Fraser
5War Changes ThingsWorld War Iproved
extraordinarily transformationalfor theUnited
States
6Concerns about the food system were central to
this transformation
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10Food Will Win the WarGovernment Concerns/Goals
- Prevent civil unrest
- Alleviate agricultural labor shortages
- Feed mobilizing troops
- Feed starving European allies through American
food conservation AND increased production efforts
11Government Concerns/Goals
- Encourage local production and consumption to
reduce the food mile and save trains for
transport of food and materiel - Mobilize and unify Americans around food
conservation and production efforts, particularly
GARDENING
12Uncle Sam says GARDEN
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14Food is Ammunition
15Sow the Seeds of Victory!
16Three Programs
- U.S School Garden Army
- National War Garden Commission
- Womans Land Army of America
- Linked efforts
- All associated with a government agency
17 National War Garden Commission
18United States School Garden Army
19Womans Land Army
20What was the WLAA?
- The WLAA enabled nearly 20,000 urban women to
enter Americas ag sector to work as ordinary
wage laborers between 1917-21. The majority were
college-educated women. - The WLAA challenged in fundamental ways the
social customs and mores of American society, and
was vital to securing womans rights and suffrage
in the United States.
21Women in Ag Previously
- The work of rural women hidden
- WLAA fundamentally different
- Challenged in a very direct way proscriptions on
womans work, womans role, womans capabilities - There was resistance to this effort
22Cross-FertilizationPrecursors
- Gardening within domestic sphere.
- Gilded Age enormous interest in horticulture in
both Europe/America. - Domestic sphere construct stretched to
accommodate women as para-professionals in
horticulture (personal expertise to prof
practice).
23Cross-FertilizationPrecursors
- Much work done within context of reform.
- Legislation (Morrill, Hatch, Adams, Smith-Lever).
- Womens horticultural schools.
- Womens civic organizations (WNFGA).
- Atlantic Crossings.
24Cross-Fertilization Precursors
- Imprint of the Progressive Era.
- Emphasis on scientific agriculture.
- Highly ordered.
- Progressive interest in relationship between
urban and rural spheres. - British land army experience.
- Helen Fraseradvancement of womans rights.
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27Shaken the very foundationsto atoms
- The WLA represented a challenge to traditional
notions of separate spheres and traditional
roles. - It was viewed by many as an opportunity to
advance an agenda of womans rights in America
to British experience. - One of the organizing groups was the Womans
Suffrage Party.
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29Why Did Women Participate?
- Patriotism
- Altruism, outlet for reform
- Educational and training opportunities
- Economic opportunities
- Adventure
- To promote womans rights
- Key Women interrupted education and life plans
to participate!
30Who Were They?
- Mostly white, urban and middle class
- Young
- Majority college-educated
- Most unmarried
- Some trade workers (impt for class laboratory)
- Leaders professionals, educators, reformers,
lots of cross-reference with suffrage movement
31Every morning, when you started off, it was with
a feeling of adventure no telling what might
happen before you got home. No one minded taking
chances. - Helen Kennedy Stevens
land worker, Feb 1918
32Building a Cold Frame Overview of the WLA
- Organized in 1917, immediately after war declared
on Germany. - Organized by multiple groups WNFGA, Ambler
staff, Womans Suffrage Party, State Council of
Defense, Garden Club of America, YMCA. - WLA 15,000-20,000 in number only a portion of
all female land workers.
33Cold Frame
- Centralized, national structure, minimally
staffed, but what was staffed was important - Staffed entirely by women
- Entry into states via councils of defense.
34Cold Frame
- Organized locally by community-based
organizations, institutions, groups, in
collaboration. - Funded by other women!
- Relationships, relationships, relationships.
35What Was Life Like for a Farmerette?
- Unit system, para-military structure.
- Many of most successful units organized at elite
womens collegereform ethic, womans rights
there already. - Systematic training, communal living,
standardized work hours and wages, organized
labor deployment.
36What Was Life Like?
- Camps (tents, houses).
- Deployed into smaller work units to a variety of
farming operations. - Unit manager negotiated wages for entire group.
- Health and nutrition key.
- Moral uplift and education.
37What Was Life Like?
- All-women communities.
- Fun and recreationsinging, swimming, husky
harvesting. - National organization published a newsletterlots
of cultural expressions and forms.
38What Was Life Like?
- Training and education key
- Not an unskilled ag labor force
- Extension models utilized
- Civic orgs provided training as well
- At colleges (UC Farm at Davisville, etc.)
39What Did Farmerettes Do?
- Tasksfruit picking, grading, packing hoeing
truck gardening grain silo work trucking
thinning, raising, harvesting vegetables hay
making general farming equipment operation
field work dairying poultry farming livestock
management tobacco harvesting timbering road
building.
40How Were Farmerettes Received?
- Encouraged by Teddy Roosevelt, Charles Lathrop
Pack, Progressive Leaders - Mixed reception by govt officials
- Press extremely positive
- LOVED by farmers (and wives!)
- But concerns existed
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42Ventura County
- While more prevalent north of the Tehachapis and
in LA Basin, a WLA crew brought in the fruit
harvest at the Philbricks farm in Ojai. Local
newspaper reports were highly complimentary of
the Farmerettes.
43Statistics
- By summer 1918, approximately 1000 units in
operation in at least 21 states. - Many units affiliated with elite womens
colleges Vassar, Barnard, Mills. - Some affiliated with public ag schools Cornell,
UC. - High wage states CA, NY
- Low wage states PA, VA
44Statistics
- Very strong in West, Northeast middling strength
in Midwest didnt flourish in the South. - In West and Northeast, many leaders also
affiliated with suffrage movement and other
reform efforts.
45Wages Working Conditions
- Great sensitivity re labor relations in US
during this period - Enormous issues around race and immigration
- Ag labor shortage
- WLA provided a plausible response to these
challenges
46Wages and Working Conditions
- National organization somewhat conflicted (larger
sensitivity to labor issues in US). - Regional variations.
- Harder work higher wage.
- California workers demanded and received higher
wages than their peers. - Awareness by some in WLA that they were workers.
47California
- One of first states to mobilize.
- Growers took laborers seriously built housing
(Vacaville AMAZING!) - Women begin to be viewed as farmers in own right
(court decision)
48California
- No. California unit published manifesto, secured
favorable working conditions. - UC contributed to success in impt ways.
- Katherine Phillips Edson and other reformers led
the way.
49Recruitment
- World War I standard infant mass media industry.
- Postersuntil the boys come back
- Speeches
- Articles
- Colleges provided incentives
- Media charmed by farmerettes.
50Hoeing the Tough Row Resistance
- Womens suitability for hard physical labor
questioned repeatedly. - Imperil future health (read child bearing
capability?) - Regional resistance.
- Some of Wilsons administration doubted.
51Resistance
- Timing of entry, duration in labor force.
- Resistance to promoting suffrage (put aside
differences in wartime). - Work outside domestic sphere.
- Nativist concerns.
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53Gleanings The Demobilization
- WLA work continued on smaller scale as 3M men
demobilizedpatriotism, which had been used to
draw women into war work, was now used to push
them out (dont take job from veteran). - Labor shortage less acute due to increased
mechanization, greater crop yields.
54GleaningsThe Demobilization
- Women involved at this point working because of
- Economic need
- Like nature of work
- Engaging in more specialized ag work
- View themselves as having earned right to be
laborers
55To the call both to conservation and to
increased production, the American people have
responded nobly. How quickly they have changed
their attitude, how splendidly they have made
good by adapting themselves to the new
conditions! When the war garden movement was
started, the problem of food production was on
the way to be solved." ----- Luther
Burbank
56Outcomes
- Significant increase in food production
- Minimal labor disruptions due to WLA and other
female labor forces - WLA members in CA lobbied for - and was first
group to receive concessions from growers
temporarily increased status of ag labor - Some of these women spun off into larger labor
movements
57Outcomes
- So successful that program was institutionalized
during World War II more than 2 million women
enrolled via Federal Labor Dept (rural/urban) - Real acceptance by US govt
- Post-WWI boom in conferences promoting womens
work in ag, including one key conference at
Amherst
58Outcomes
- Increased opportunities for women in education
and fields such as horticulture - Girl with the hoe in WWI became prototype for
Rosie the Riveter in WWII
59Outcomes
- 19th Amendment proposed 1919 (June), ratified
1920 (August). - The right of citizens in the United States to
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of sex.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation.
60Individual Stories
- Sarah Richardson went to Nebraska to work for the
ranch that employed her as a WLA worker - Linda Schroeder (Tiny) secured work as a
driver/tractor operator - Mrs. Doble worked fulltime as expert pruner in
orchards - Katherine Sampson wintered in CA, took a tractor
course, and returned to Nebraska to seek
employment - Many others returned to college, and/or married
61Individual Voices
- Perhaps the greatest joy in the work lies in the
health and vigor of it. - --- Marguerite Wilkinson
62Individual Voices
- We did not break down or get sick or sun
struckWe went home serene and brown and strong. - --- Cornelia Throop Geer