Reading fluency as a marker for early reading progress: Strengths and Weaknesses

1
Reading fluency as a marker for early reading
progress Strengths and Weaknesses Joseph K.
Torgesen Florida State University and the Eastern
Regional Reading First Technical Assistance
Center Massachusetts Reading First,March, 2006
2
Examine the utility of reading fluency as a
marker for early reading progress by focusing on
three questions
1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in
identifying students who are at risk for
performing below grade level on high stakes
measures of reading comprehension?
2. What is the causal connection between reading
fluency and reading comprehension?
What evidence do we have that there is a causal
connection?
What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?
3. What are the big ideas that should guide our
work to build reading fluency in young children?
3
Why is it important for us all to acquire more
knowledge and understanding about these
questions?
1. Measures off reading fluency are being used
in a very large number of states in Reading First
as one of the primary indicators of early reading
growth.
2. Reading Fluency has been identified as one of
the five major components of reading growth that
should be the focus of instruction and assessment
in grades K-3
3. Many programs are currently being promoted
and used for the specific purpose of increasing
reading fluencyand the goal of these programs is
not just to increase reading fluency, but also to
increase students ability to comprehend complex
text.
4
Examine the relationship between reading fluency
and reading comprehension with a view toward more
fully understanding the answers to three
questions
1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in
identifying students who are at risk for
performing below grade level on measures of
reading comprehension?
2. What is the causal connection between reading
fluency and reading comprehension?
What evidence do we have that there is a causal
connection?
What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?
3. What are the big ideas that should guide our
work to build reading fluency in young children?
5
The most common way of assessing reading fluency
is to ask students to read a passage of grade
level text orally and count the number of words
the student reads correctly in a defined period
of time.
The time period for assessment is typically one
minute.
Provides a reliable assessment of fluency one
passage in low .90s three passages with
median mid to high .90s
Oral reading fluency shows steady growth as
children acquire reading skills during 1st
through 3rd grade
6
Correct Words per Minute on Grade Level Text
120
110
100
90
80
Correct Words per Minute
70
60
50
40
Good, Wallin, Simmons, Kameenui, Kaminski, 2002
30
20
W S F W S F W S

1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade
7
The most common way of assessing reading fluency
is to ask students to read a passage of grade
level text orally and count the number of words
the student reads correctly in a defined period
of time.
The time period for assessment is typically one
minute.
Provides a reliable assessment of fluency one
passage in low .90s three passages with
median mid to high .90s
Oral reading fluency shows steady growth as
children acquire reading skills during 1st
through 3rd grade
Oral reading fluency measures are strongly
related to reading comprehension in grades 1,2, 3
8
Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with
most falling around .70.
The strength of the relationship depends upon
such things as
The measure of reading comprhension
9
N218 R.76
10
N218 R.56
11
Correlations range from about .50 to .90, with
most falling around .70.
The strength of the relationship depends upon
such things as
The measure of reading comprehension
Age/grade level of students r with SAT10
1st grade r .79 2nd grade r .70 3rd grade r
.69
Why is the correlation higher at 1st than at 3rd
grade?
12
These correlations indicate that performance on
brief measures of oral reading fluency is
strongly correlated with performance on measures
of reading comprehension.
However, they dont tell us directly how useful
the ORF measures actually are in identifying
students likely to struggle on comprehension
measures
It turns out that ORF measures have high
predictive utility for identifying students
likely to struggle on high stakes or formal
measures of reading comprehension
13
Prediction from first of year
Hi risk
Moderate Risk
Low Risk
90
3,339 students
86
80
72
70
60
50
40
46
Percent Proficient on MCAS
Percent Grade level on FCAT
40
Orf gt 78
Orf gt 78
30
25
Orf from 53 to 77
Orf from 53 to 77
20
19
lt53
lt53
10

3rd Grade-MASS Florida
14
Teaching Reading is Urgent
88 of students who met the end of first grade
ORF goal met or exceeded Oregons State Benchmark
Test. Similar correlations have been found for
CO, IA, FL, and PA.
Performance at the end of first grade strongly
predicts performance on third grade high stakes
test.
15
Examine the relationship between reading fluency
and reading comprehension with a view toward more
fully understanding the answers to three
questions
1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in
identifying students who are at risk for
performing below grade level on measures of
reading comprehension?
2. What is the causal connection between reading
fluency and reading comprehension?
What evidence do we have that there is a causal
connection?
What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?
3. What are the big ideas that should guide our
work to build reading fluency in young children?
16
Some definitions of reading fluency
the ability to read connected text rapidly,
smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with
little conscious attention to the mechanics of
reading, such as decoding (Meyer and Felton
(1999, p. 284).
17
Five common methods for identifying words in text
(Ehri, 1999)
1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into
phonemes to form recognizable words (decoding)
2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as
chunks (a more advanced form of decoding)
3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words
are referred to as sight words. Retrieval
happens quickly and effortlessly with practice
4. By analogizing to words already known by sight
5. By predicting words from context
18
Five common methods for identifying words in text
(Ehri, 1999)
1. By sounding out and blending graphemes into
phonemes to form recognizable words (decoding)
2. By pronouncing common spelling patters as
chunks (a more advanced form of decoding)
3. By retrieving words from memory. Such words
are referred to as sight words. Retrieval
happens quickly and effortlessly with practice
4. By analogizing to words already known by sight
5. By predicting words from context
Although all these methods for reading words
become more fluent with practice, fluency
increases most dramatically as more words become
identifiable by sight.
19
These are iNTirEStinG and cHallinGinG times for
anyone whose pRoFEshuNle responsibilities are
rEelaTed in any way to liTiRucY outcomes among
school children. For, in spite of all our new
NaWLEGe about reading and reading iNstRukshun,
there is a wide-spread concern that public
EdgUkAshuN is not as eFfEktIve as it shood be in
tEecHiNg all children to read.
20
The report of the National Research Council
pointed out that these concerns about literacy
derive not from declining levels of literacy in
our schools but rather from recognition that the
demands for high levels of literacy are rapidly
accelerating in our society.
21
The Fluency Challenge..
One of the great mysteries to challenge
researchers is how people learn to read and
comprehend text rapidly and with ease. A large
part of the explanation lies in how they learn to
read individual words. Skilled readers are able
to look at thousands of words and immediately
recognize their meanings without any effort.
Ehri, L. C. (2002). Phases of acquisition in
learning to read words and implications for
teaching. In R. Stainthorp and P. Tomlinson
(Eds.) Learning and teaching reading. London
British Journal of Educational Psychology
Monograph Series II.
22
December, 3rd Grade Correct word/minute60 19th
percentile
The Surprise Party My dad had his
fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a
big surprise party for him. She said I could
assist with the party but that I had to keep the
party a secret. She said I couldnt tell my dad
because that would spoil the surprise.
I helped mom organize the guest list and write
the invitations. I was responsible for making
sure everyone was included. I also addressed all
the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses
on them..
23
December, 3rd Grade Correct word/minute128 78th
percentile
The Surprise Party My dad had his
fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a
big surprise party for him. She said I could
assist with the party but that I had to keep the
party a secret. She said I couldnt tell my dad
because that would spoil the surprise.
I helped mom organize the guest list and write
the invitations. I was responsible for making
sure everyone was included. I also addressed all
the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses
on them..
24
Some definitions of reading fluency
the ability to read connected text rapidly,
smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically with
little conscious attention to the mechanics of
reading, such as decoding (Meyer and Felton
(1999, p. 284).
freedom from word recognition problems that
might hinder comprehension (Literacy Dictionary,
Harris Hodges, 1995, p. 85).
Fluency is the ability to read text quickly,
accurately, and with proper expression National
Reading Panel, 2000
Fluency involves accurate reading at a minimal
rate with appropriate prosodic features
(expression) and deep understanding Hudson,
Mercer, and Lane (2000, p. 16).
25
If comprehension is included as part of the
definition of fluency, then questions about the
causal relationships between fluency and
comprehension disappear
However, when we assess ORF, we do not directly
assess comprehension, we assess rate of reading
The question we address here is whether there are
causal relationships between the processes that
contribute to individual differences in oral
reading rate and the processes that are required
for good performance on measures of reading
comprehension
26
Within current reading theory, we can identify
two major ways that individual differences in ORF
(as it is commonly measured) might be related
causally to individual differences in reading
comprehension
Efficient, or automatic, identification of words
allows the reader to focus more attention on the
meaning of the passage
Comprehension processes themselves may cause
individual differences in reading rate. These
comprehension processes influence both fluency
and comprehension tasks.
27
Within current reading theory, we can identify
two major ways that individual differences in ORF
(as it is commonly measured) might be related
causally to individual differences in reading
comprehension
Efficient, or automatic, identification of words
allows the reader to focus more attention on the
meaning of the passage
Comprehension processes themselves may cause
individual differences in reading rate. These
comprehension processes influence both fluency
and comprehension tasks.
28
The idea that automatic word recognition
processes make it possible to focus more
attentional resources on comprehension was
initially popularized by the work of LaBerge and
Samuals (1974)
They developed a model of reading with the
concept of automaticity as one of its central
features
1. A complex skill like reading requires the
rapid and efficient coordination of many processes
2. If enough processes are executed
automatically, then the attentional load remains
within tolerable limits.
3. Word identification processes are more likely
to become automatic than comprehension processes
29
In fact, the automaticity with which skillful
readers recognize words is the key to the whole
systemThe readers attention can be focused on
the meaning and message of a text only to the
extent that its free from fussing with the words
and letters. Marilyn Adams
30
Why is fluency important?

• Because it provides a bridge between word
  recognition and comprehension.

31
Fluency, it seems, serves as a bridge between
word recognition and comprehension. Because when
fluent readers are able to identify words
accurately and automatically, they can focus most
of their attention on comprehension.
They can make connections among the ideas in the
text and between the text and their background
knowledge. In other words, fluent readers can
recognize words and comprehend at the same time.
Less fluent readers, however, must focus much of
their attention on word recognitionThe result is
that non-fluent readers have little attention to
devote to comprehension (Osborn, Lehr, and
Hiebert, 2003)
32
The Evidence
When reading rate is increased through the use of
repeated reading techniques, comprehension also
increases (16 studies-NRP report)
Effect size for fluency .44
Effect size for comprehension .35
Problem a variety of techniques were actually
mixed together in these findings
A more recent meta-analysis focusing only on
repeated reading studies reported these effect
sizes (THERRIEN, 2004)
Effect size for fluency .50
Effect size for comprehension .25
Problem processes other than word reading
efficiency might be enhanced by repeated reading
practice
33
The Evidence (cont.)
What we need is evidence that practice which
focuses solely on increasing word reading
efficiency can also increase text reading fluency
and reading comprehension
Can practice specifically targeted on word
reading efficiency improve fluency and
comprehension?
34
What do we mean by context-free practice?
35
The Evidence (cont.)
Recently, Levy, Abello, and Lysnchuk(1997)
reported a carefully controlled study with 4th
grade poor readers in which context free practice
to increase speed of word identification
positively affected both fluency and comprehension
Critical features 1. intensive fluency
practice-every word recognized in less than 1
seconds 2. Used long stories that places
particular demands on fluency 3. Stories were
at the appropriate level of difficulty for each
student
36
To summarize
Increasing rate through repeated reading practice
also increases comprehension
There has been at least one demonstration that
increasing rate through isolated word practice
can increase reading comprehension
37
Across these definitions of fluency, we can
identify two major ways that individual
differences in ORF might be related causally to
individual differences in reading comprehension
Efficient identification of words allow a focus
on the meaning of the passage
Comprehension processes themselves may contribute
to individual differences in reading rate. These
comprehension processes are shared between
fluency and comprehension tasks.
38
The Evidence
Comprehension is occurring for most students as
they read the words on ORF passages.
Although students remember more of the content
from ORF stories if prompted to remember, they do
remember a significant amount with only a cue to
do their best reading (OShea, Sindelar,
OShea, 1987)
There is experimental evidence to indicate that
comprehension processes (identifying anaphoric
referents, integrating propositions in text with
background knowledge, inferencing) can also
become automatized with reading practice.
(Perfetti, 1995)
This means they can occur without the specific
intention to comprehend.
39
The Evidence
How could automatically occurring comprehension
processes affect rate of reading on ORF tasks?
There is experimental evidence for fast acting,
automatic spreading of semantic activation thast
does not consume attention resourceswords are
primed for easier recognition (Posner Snyder,
1975).
40
The Evidence
Jenkins, et al., (2003) asked 113 4th grade
students with a broad range of reading ability to
perform three tasks
1. ORF following standard (best reading) cue.
2. ORF with words in passage arranged in random
order in a list
3. ITBS reading comprehension test
41
The Evidence
WPM Text 127 WPM List 83
Processes unique to reading meaningful text
supported more fluent reading of words
spreading activation based on comprehension
facilitates fluency is one possibility
Correlation with ITBS
Text .83
List .53
Test format that allowed comprehension processes
(presumably operating in both ORF and
comprehension test) to influence rate led to
higher correlation word reading that is
influenced by comprehension is more correlated
with comprehension than just word reading
efficiency alone
42
Conclusions
1. Both single word identification processes and
comprehension processes contribute to individual
differences in oral reading fluency for text
a. At the lower end of the ORF continuum, word
reading efficiency makes a stronger unique
contribution in explaining variance in fluency
b.At the higher end of the ORF continuum,
comprehension processes make a stronger unique
contribution to explaining variance in fluency.
43
Individual Differences in Oral Reading Fluency
are influenced by different factors, depending on
level of fluency
50th
16th
2nd
98th
84th
50th
16th
2nd
98th
Standard Scores
Standard Scores
44
Conclusions (cont.)
ORF is correlated with reading comprehension
because
1. Both ORF and reading comprehension depend to
some extent on efficiency of single word reading
processes
2. Both ORF speed and reading comprehension
scores are influenced to some extent by the
efficiency of comprehension processes that
facilitate performance on both tasks
45
Reading Processes measured by ORF facilitate
performance on tests of Reading Comprehension
Next question Are the two direct causal
connections the only reason that ORF is related
to performance on tests of reading comprehension?
A reminder about correlations
A can be correlated with B because
A causes B (good reading rate enables comp.)
B causes A (comp. enables good reading rate)
Both A and B are caused by C (comp. and rate are
both influenced by experience)
46
Fluency can be correlated with comprehension
because individual differences in both skills are
caused by differences in
Reading experience
Home environment and support
Motivation to succeed in school
Fluency
Reading Experience
Reading comprehension through vocabulary increases
Fluency
Motivation to succeed in school
Reading comprehension through development of
reading strategies
47
motivated students usually want to understand
text content fully and therefore, process
information deeply. As they read frequently with
these cognitive purposes, motivated students gain
in reading comprehension proficiency
Guthrie, J.T. (et al.) (2004). Increasing reading
comprehension and engagement through
concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 96, 403-421.
48
Differences in SES cause differences among
students in both comprehension and fluency
Lower SES students

• Lower vocabulary

• Less support for reading in the home less
  practice

• Less preparation in preschool environment for
  early acquisition of alphabetic principle

• Less exposure to books

• Fewer opportunities to develop rich content
  knowledge

49
Differences in SES cause differences among
students in both comprehension and fluency
Differences in learning opportunities and
motivation for school learning that are
associated with differences in SES cause both
Lower Fluency
Lower Comprehension
???
50
Total R2 71
N218 ORF R.76 Vocab R .69 NVR R .48 Mem R
.35
Common 43.5
ORF 18.9
Vocab 7.1
NVR 1.2
Mem .3
51
ORF Unique R .43
52
What is the practical meaning of these analyses
in terms of the potential impact of interventions
that increase just reading fluency
If we based our estimate of the impact of these
interventions on the raw correlation between ORF
and comprehension, we would expect
A 10 WPM gain on ORF would produce a 12.5 point
gain on the FCAT
If we controlled for the joint, and shared,
contribution of vocabulary, nonverbal reasoning,
and memory, we would expect
10 WPM gain on ORF would produce an 8.6 point
gain on the FCAT
53
Conclusions from analysis of causal relations
between ORF and reading comprehension
Interventions that focus directly on increasing
oral reading fluency are likely to have an impact
on performance on broad comprehension measures,
because fluency is causally related to
comprehension
How ever, the maximum impact from improvement in
ORF will not be obtained unless work on ORF is
embedded within a complete program that also
stimulates and builds comprehension strategies,
vocabulary, and reasoning skills, because these
variables have an independent impact on
comprehension
54
Something else to think about Fluency is the
ability to read text quickly, accurately, and
with proper expression National Reading Panel
What is the role of prosody in fluent reading?
Why is prosody important?
Should teachers spend time modeling prosody and
encouraging students to read with expression?
55
What are the causal relationships among prosody,
comprehension, and reading rate?
Possible Causal connections
If children will read with expression, it helps
them understand what they are reading
Prosody indicates that the child is apprehending
the meaning of what is being read-prosody
reflects comprehension
56
The relationship between prosody and reading
comprehension
Certainly, when speech is given with proper
prosody and expression, it helps the listener to
comprehend
Does it work the same way for reading? Does the
reader listen to his/her own prosody as an aid to
comprehension?
The evidence is not definitive on this point, but
it seems most likely that prosody is primarily a
reflection of comprehension, rather than a cause
of it.
Schwanenflugel, P.J., et al., Becoming a Fluent
Reader Reading Skill and Prosodic Features in
the Oral Reading of Young Readers, Journal of
Educational Psychology, 2004, 119-129
57
Examine the relationship between reading fluency
and reading comprehension with a view toward more
fully understanding the answers to three
questions
1. How useful are measures of reading fluency in
identifying students who are at risk for
performing below grade level on measures of
reading comprehension?
2. What is the causal connection between reading
fluency and reading comprehension?
What evidence do we have that there is a causal
connection?
What mechanisms or skills mediate that connection?
3. What are the big ideas that should guide our
work to build reading fluency in young children?
58
What are the big ideas that should guide our work
to build reading fluency in young children?
Learning to read accurately is one of the first
steps to becoming a fluent reader
59
The development of reading fluency for students
in Reading First Schools Massachusetts Data
Growth of Reading Fluency in Second Grade.
Testing point at Benchmark percentile rank
Fall, 2003 44.2 41st
Spring, 2003 41.2 30th
Fall, 2004 46.0 42nd
Spring, 2005 49.9 37th
60
The development of reading fluency for students
in Reading First Schools Massachusetts Data
Growth of Reading Fluency in Third Grade.
Testing point at Benchmark percentile rank
Fall, 2003 38.3 33rd
Spring, 2003 36.7 28th
Fall, 2004 40.7 34th
Spring, 2005 43.1 32nd
61
The development of reading fluency for students
in Reading First Schools Massachusetts Data
Relative performance across grades 1-3 in Spring
2005
Grade at Benchmark percentile rank
First 60.0 49th
Second 49.9 37th
Third 43.1 31st
62
The development of reading fluency for students
in Reading First SchoolsFlorida Schools
For the past two years, students in 320 Reading
First schools in Florida have been losing
ground in the development of reading fluency in
2nd grade.
Many students who enter second grade with reading
fluency at grade level leave second grade below
grade level
63
(No Transcript)
64
Instructional Emphasis for Second Grade
Fluency 4
65
(No Transcript)
66
One problem that arises from so many students
coming into 2nd grade still weak in effective,
accurate word reading strategies
Growth in fluency requires accurate practice
A major factor underlying growth in fluency for
struggling readers is how fast the number of
words they can recognize by sight increases
Children must read unfamiliar words with perfect
accuracy on multiple occasions before they can
become sight words
Sight vocabulary must grow very rapidly in second
grade to keep pace with normative development
67
(No Transcript)
68
What are the big ideas that should guide our work
to build reading fluency in young children?
Reading First students need powerful instruction
in strategies for accurate word identification
(phonemic decoding) in first grade and extending
into complex skills in second grade.
Children must become accurate readers as a first
step toward becoming fluent readers.
Reading first students need many opportunities to
acquire sight word representations for high
frequency, high utility words working to expand
students sight word vocabulary as fast as
possible
Supervised, repeated reading practice is one
efficient way to do this
69
What are the big ideas that should guide our work
to build reading fluency in young children?
Reading First students should be encouraged to
attend to meaning in all their reading assignments
Encouraging students to read with prosody will
lead them to attend to meaning
Repeated practice in reading for meaning supports
the growth of automatic comprehension processes
which are important for both fluency and
comprehension
70
Strengths of oral reading fluency measures
They are an extremely reliable measure of one of
the important components of reading proficiency
They currently provide the most accurate brief
assessment to identify students likely to
struggle on measures of comprehension at the end
of grades 1, 2, and 3.
71
The most important single danger in using Oral
Reading Fluency measures as an index of reading
growth in grades 1-3 is that teachers will be
mislead into focusing just on rate.
We must focus on the true definition of
fluency It involves reading at an appropriate
rate with deep comprehension
72
Thank you
73
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