Title: Mathematics Instruction for Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: A Handbook for Educators
1Mathematics Instruction for Children with Fetal
Alcohol Spectrum DisorderA Handbook for
Educators
- Carmen Rasmussen, PhD
- Katy Wyper, BSc
- Department of Pediatrics
- University of Alberta
2- The development of the manual was funded by
the Alberta Centre for Child, Family, and
Community Research
Correspondence concerning this manual should be
addressed to Carmen Rasmussen Department of
Pediatrics, University of Alberta 137 GlenEast,
Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital 10230-111Ave,
Edmonton, Alberta, T5G 0B7 Phone (780)
735-7999, ext 15631 Fax (780) 735-7907,
carmen_at_ualberta.ca
3Chapter Overview
- Mathematics Deficits in Children with FASD (p. 1)
- Children with PAE
- Adolescents with PAE
- Preschool Children with PAE
- Conclusions
- General Strategies for Teaching Children with
FASD (p. 8) - Preparing to Teach Students with FASD
- Specific Classroom Interventions
- Helpful Educational Strategies
- Behavioral Interventions
- Stages of Math Development (p. 18)
- Learning Framework in Number
- Part A Early Arithmetic Strategies Base-Ten
Arithmetic Strategies - Part B Forward Number Word Sequences, Backward
Number Word Sequences, Numerical Identification - Part C Other Aspects of Early Arithmetic
- Strategy Competence
41) Mathematics Deficits in Children with FASD
- Children with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
- The most direct evidence for the effect of
prenatal alcohol exposure on mathematics
difficulties among offspring comes from the
landmark longitudinal study by Streissguth, Barr,
Sampson, and Bookstein1. - Over 500 parent-child dyads participants, with
about 250 of the mothers classified as heavier
drinkers and about 250 as infrequent drinkers or
as abstaining from alcohol (based on maternal
report of alcohol use during mid-pregnancy). - From preschool to adolescence, these children
were tested on a variety of outcome variables
including IQ, academic achievement,
neurobehavioral ratings, cognitive and memory
measures, and teacher ratings. - Of all these outcome variables, performance on
arithmetic were the most highly correlated with
prenatal alcohol exposure at age 42, 7 years3,
114, and 145. Thus, the more alcohol these
children were exposed to, the poorer they did on
tests arithmetic, and this relation with alcohol
exposure was the strongest of all of the
variables measured. - Furthermore, 91 of the children who performed
poorly on arithmetic at age 7 were still low at
age 14, highlighting the stability and robustness
of this finding. For older children maternal
binge drinking appeared to be most related to
lower arithmetic performance. - The authors Streissguth5 highlighted the
recurrent finding that arithmetic is especially
difficult for individuals who were prenatally
exposed to alcohol.
1
5- In a study of 512 mother-child dyads,
Goldschmidt6 examined the relation between
maternal report of alcohol use during pregnancy
and academic achievement of offspring at 6 years
of age. - The authors found that drinking during the second
trimester was related to difficulties in reading,
spelling, and arithmetic. Furthermore, after
controlling for IQ, prenatal alcohol exposure was
still significantly related to arithmetic but
only marginally related to reading and spelling.
This indicates that these substantial deficits in
arithmetic can not be solely attributed to a low
IQ. - Others have found that 7-year-olds with prenatal
alcohol exposures have a slower processing speed
and a specific deficit in processing numbers.7 - Furthermore, arithmetic is one of the only
measures that differentiates children with
FAS/FAE from those with ADHD, in that only those
with FAS/FAE show deficits in arithmetic.8 - In another study, Coles9 examined the cognitive
and academic abilities of children aged 5 to 9
years from three groups a control group not
exposed to alcohol a group whose mothers stopped
drinking during the second trimester and group
whose mothers drank throughout the pregnancy. - Of all the achievement subtests, math was the
lowest score among both the alcohol exposed
groups, but not the control group.
2
6- Adolescents with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
- Arithmetic deficits have also been documented in
adolescents with FASD. - Streissguth et al. 10 found that adolescents and
adults with FAS/FAE performed the poorest on
arithmetic scoring at the second grade level for
arithmetic, third grade for spelling, and fourth
grade for reading. - Furthermore, adults with FAS, both with average
and below average IQ, have been found to score
lowest on the arithmetic tests (as compared to
other academic areas) and only arithmetic scores
were lower than predicted based on IQ. 11 - Kopera-Frye12 specifically examined number
processing among 29 adolescents and adults (aged
12 to 44) with FAS/FAE and control participants
matched on age, gender, and education level. - Participants were tested on number reading,
number writing, and number comparison tests as
well as exact and approximate calculation of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication. They
also completed a proximity judgment test in which
they were to circle one of two given numbers that
was about the same quantity as the target number
(e.g., 15 17 or 27). - Participants also completed a cognitive
estimation test in which they were presented with
questions for which they had to provide a
reasonable estimate, such as what is the length
of a dollar bill? or how heavy is the heaviest
dog on earth? Before testing judges determined
what would be the acceptable range for guesses. - The group with FASD made significantly more
errors than the controls on cognitive estimation,
proximity judgement, exact calculation of
addition, subtraction and multiplication, and
approximate subtraction.
3
7- Furthermore, the highest number of participants
was impaired on cognitive estimation, followed by
approximate subtraction. Although the FASD group
tended to answer with the correct units of
measurement (feet, pounds) on the cognitive
estimation test, their range of answers was far
broader than those of the controls. For example,
one participant answered 5 feet for the length of
a dollar bill. - Hence, despite having intact number reading,
writing, and comparison skills, the participants
displayed deficits in many other areas of number
processing, particularly calculation and
cognitive estimation. - Using a similar math battery with 13-year-olds,
Jacobson et al.13 found that prenatal alcohol
exposure was related to deficits in exact
addition, subtraction, and multiplication,
approximate subtraction and addition, and
proximity judgment and number comparison. - Two main factors emerged calculation (exact and
approximate) and magnitude representation (number
comparison and proximity judgment). Thus it
appears that the math deficits evident in FASD
may be in two different areas, one relating more
to calculating and the other involved in
estimation and magnitude representation. - Finally, Howell14 compared academic achievement
of adolescents with prenatal alcohol exposure,
controls children, and special education
students. The special education group had poorer
overall achievement, as well as in reading and
writing, but still those with prenatal alcohol
exposure were significantly impaired in
mathematics. - Mathematics deficits have even been reported in
Swedish adolescents with prenatal alcohol
exposure.
4
8- Preschool Children with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
- Little research has been conducted on math
abilities in preschool children prenatally
exposed to alcohol. - Kable and Coles15 looked at the relation between
prenatal alcohol exposure and math and reading in
4-year-old children from a high-risk (high
alcohol exposure) and low-risk (low alcohol
exposure) groups and found that the high-risk
group performed significantly lower than the low
risk-group on math but not reading. - In a recent study, Rasmussen Bisanz,16 examined
the relation between mathematics and working
memory in young children (aged 4 to 6 years of
age) diagnosed with an FASD. - Children with FASD displayed significant
difficulties on the two mathematics subtests
(applied problems and quantitative concepts)
which measure problem solving, and knowledge of
math terms, concepts, symbols, number patterns,
and sequences. - Age was negatively correlated with performance on
the quantitative concepts subtest, indicating
that older children performed worse, relative to
the norm, than younger children on the
quantitative concepts subtest. Thus quantitative
concepts appear to be particularly difficult with
age among children with FASD. - Moreover, children with FASD performed well below
the norm on measures of working memory, which
were correlated with math performance indicating
that the math difficulties in children with FASD
may result from underlying deficits in working
memory.
5
9- Conclusions
- There is considerable evidence indicating that
children and adolescents with FASD and prenatal
alcohol exposure have specific deficits in
mathematics and particularly arithmetic. - These findings have been consistent across a
multitude of both longitudinal studies and group
comparison studies, even after controlling for
many confounding variables and IQ. Thus, these
math deficits are not simply due to a lower IQ
among those with FASD, but rather prenatal
alcohol exposures appears to have a specific
negative affect on mathematics abilities. - More research is now needed to determine why
children with FASD have such deficits in
mathematics and what area of mathematics are most
difficult for these children, which is important
to modify instruction and tailor intervention to
improve mathematics. - There is very little intervention research among
children with FASD, and even less intervention
research on mathematics and FASD. - However, recently Kable,17 developed and
evaluated a math intervention program for
children aged 3 to 10 years with FAS or partial
FAS. The math intervention program included
intensive, interactive, and individual math
tutoring with each child. It also focused on
cognitive functions such as working memory and
visual-spatial skills that are involved in
mathematics. - Children were assessed before and after the 6
week intervention, and after the intervention
children in the math intervention group showed
more improvements in math performance than
children not in the math intervention. - This is the first study to demonstrate
improvements in math among children with an FASD
and future research is needed to examine the
long-term efficacy of such and intervention, the
most appropriate duration of such a program, as
well whether such positive benefits can be
observed in group classroom settings.18
6
10- References
- Streissguth, Barr, Sampson, and Bookstein (1994)
- Streissguth, 1989
- Streissguth, 1990
- Olson, 1992
- Streissguth, 1994
- Goldschmidt (1996)
- Burden (2005)
- (Coles 1997
- Coles 1991
- Streissguth et al 1991
- Kerns, 1997
- Kopera-Frye, (1996
- Jacobson et al. (2003)
- Howell, (2006
- Kable and Coles (2003, April
- Rasmussen Bisanz, 2007
- Kable, (in press
7
112) General Strategies for Teaching Children with
FASD
- Preparing to Teach Students with FASD
- Children with FAS/FAE difficulties in social
emotional, physical, and cognitive functioning
(particularly learning, attention sequencing,
memory, case and effect reasoning, and
generalizations).1 - Some suggestions for preparing to teach children
with FAS/FAE include1 - Collect information to understand the students
strengths and weaknesses. - look at the students history, previous report
cards, psychological reports, IPPs, as well as
family and medical background - talk with the child about their interested,
concerns, and supports - talk with the parents about the childs strengths
and weaknesses - observe the child in the classroom to evaluate
needs and strategies for support - Make a plan to determine what the childs needs
to be successful. - look at resources, manuals, handbooks
- consult with other teachers and special
education teachers, professionals, counsellors,
and psychologists. - develop activities to focus on the most important
needs of the child - Evaluate the plan to determined what is and is
not working.
8
12- Kalberg and Buckley2 suggest that when developing
an Individualized Program Plan (IPP) for a child
with FASD it is important to also evaluate each
childs current skill level and his or her
specific academic needs. - Functional classroom assessments may also be
useful to understand the childs real life
abilities. The authors suggest observing each
child in different natural settings on a few
different occasions to understand conditions that
both disrupt and enhance each childs
functioning. - Important characteristics to observe
- skills
- attention
- independence
- social interactions
- language
- strengths and interests
- behavior
9
13- Specific Classroom Interventions
- Kalberg and Buckley2 also suggest some specific
classroom interventions for children with FASD - 1) Structure and Systematic Teaching
- structure environment and teaching and teach
functional routines so child knows what is coming
next and what is expected - 2) Visual Structure
- individualized visual schedules, routines, visual
organizations - visual instructions and visual cues
- color coding, labelling areas of classroom and
tasks - highlight important information on a task
- ensures the environment and tasks are clear and
predicable and helps with child with sequencing
events, transitions, anticipating what will come
next - 3) Environmental Structure
- keep environment simple with few distractions
- have obviously defined work areas
- 4) Task Structure
10
14- The acronym SCORES has been used to depict
characteristics of a good classroom environment
for students with an FASD3 - S Supervision, Structure, Simplicity
- C Communication, Consistency
- O Organizations
- R Rules (simple and concrete)
- E Expectations (realistic and attainable)
- S Self-esteem (acceptance and encouragement)
11
15- Helpful Educational Strategies
- Wescott5 provides general strategies for
educating children with FAS and FAE - slow down and simply information
- structure, use consistent daily routines
- dont overload them with stimuli
- keep transitions constant
- reduce words and verbal cues
- focus on real life skills
- set up simulated stores, banks, etc in the
classroom - use metaphors with concrete choices
- use visual cues (pictures, cartoons) to depict
daily activities - promote good coordination and communication
between parent and teacher - Kvigne et al.6 suggest many helpful education
techniques for children with FAS/FAE including - have a calm and quiet environment, using calm
colors - minimize distractions and objects hanging on
walls
12
16- Burgess and Streissguth7 describe children with
FAS/FAE as impulsive, having difficulty with
transitions, poor judgment, not understanding
consequences, and poor communication. They
suggest guiding educational principles such as
early intervention, focus on communication skills
and making choices, and teaching social skills.
To manage problematic behaviors the authors
suggest teaching communication skills and making
choices, planning ahead, and creating a balance
between structure and independence. - Other general teaching strategies for children
with FASD include1 - organizing the classroom with few distractions
- color code students material in one binder
- use pictures
- have quite work areas
- use moderate lighting and heating and warm colors
- have structure and consistent rules
- prepare the child a head of time for changes and
transitions - have simple rules with consistent consequences
- avoid too many choices
- dont give too much homework
- find a medium between not expecting too little
and expecting too much - Sobsy8 provide a list of instructions tips for
children prenatally exposed to drugs and alcohol
which include - teach within the childs cognitive and social
aptitudes
13
17- Evensen9 suggests 12 important elements for
success when teaching students with FASD - encourage success for children with FASD
- interact with the childs family and respect
their emotions - try a different approach when things are not
working - structure
- observe behaviour
- interpret behaviour
- ensure the environment is meeting the sensory
needs of the child - use concrete language
- know the memory difficulties faced by children
with FASD - recognize their social and academics difficulties
- appreciate the life transitions for individuals
with FASD - reinforce and praise success
14
18- Behavioral Interventions
- McLaughlin, Williams, and Howard10 review
classroom behavioral interventions for children
prenatally exposed to alcohol and drugs which
include - Contingency management
- Token reinforcement programs reinforce positive
behaviors with tokens, either concrete (chips) or
symbolic (points). Use tokens with social praise. - Contingency contracting write out contingencies
with behaviors and consequences on a contract for
both the child and educator to sign. - Daily report cards are also helpful when
combined with a home reinforcement system. - Behavioral Self-Management
- Self monitoring in which the child does
self-assessment and self-recording. This can
improve attention, task completion, and reduce
problematic behaviors - Self-instructional training self-instruction to
improve on-task behavior. For example, a teacher
demonstrates a problem and solution, and then the
student performs the task while saying the steps
out loud, then whispering, then silently. - Self-managed drill and practice Cover, Copy, and
Compare technique,11 Student looks at problem,
covers problem, answers problem, uncovers
problem, and compares their response to the
original. This technique is private and allows
the child to work at his or her own pace. It is
effective with children with behavior problems
and disabilities, and has been successfully used
in math.
15
19- Peer Tutoring
- Classwide peer tutoring helpful for students
with poor achievement or who have disadvantages
pr disabilities. - Reciprocal peer tutoring students service as
both tutor and tutee - Cross-age peer tutoring having older student
assist younger students - Direct Instruction
- Direct instruction involves numerous
student-teacher interactions, well-planned and
sequenced lessons, and modern learning
techniques.12 The aim is to teach more in less
time by teaching in small groups in a fast pace,
using a few examples that can be applied to a
number of different situations, and giving
instant and positive corrections.10 - McLaughlin et al.10 also suggest that because
medications can be effective with student with
ADHD they may be useful when combined with
behavioral interventions for children with
prenatal exposure to alcohol and drugs, but more
research is needed on these effects.
16
20- References
- Manitoba Manual
- Kahlberg and Buckley (2007)
- C and O Manual
- Danna Ormstup (March, 2007)
- Wescott (1991)
- Kvigne, Struck, Engelhart and West
- Burgess and Streissguth (1992)
- Sobsy
- Deb Evensen, (2007, March)
- McLaughlin, Williams, and Howard (1998)
- McLaughlin and Skinner (1996)
- Engelmann and Carnine (1998)
7
213) Stages of Math Development
- According to the UK National Numeracy standards,
by the end of the first year of formal math
education, children should be able to1 - accurately count 20 objects
- count forward and backward by ones from any small
number and count by tens from zero and back to
zero - read, write and understand the order and
vocabulary of numbers 0 through 20 - understand the operations used in addition and
subtraction, and the associated vocabulary (e.g.
take away) - remember all number pairs that have a total of
ten - say the number that is one or ten larger or
smaller than any other number from 0 to 30 - Learning Framework in Number (LFIN)1
- The Stages of Early Arithmetical Learning (SEAL)
model is the most basic aspect of the LFIN. It
describes stages in the development of childrens
arithmetical ability. According to SEAL,
development is characterized by the three parts - Part A. Early Arithmetic Strategies Base-Ten
Arithmetical Strategies - Part B. Forward Number Word Sequences (FNWS)
Number Word After Backward Number Word Sequences
(BNWS) Number Word Before Numeral
Identification - Part C. Other Aspects of Early Arithmetical
Learning
18
22- Part A
- Early Arithmetical Strategies
- Emergent Counting children are unable to count
visible objects due to either not knowing words
for numbers or not being able to coordinate the
words with the objects. - Perceptual Counting children are able to count
perceived (ie. heard, seen, or felt) objects, but
not objects in a screened collection - Figurative Counting children can count objects
in a screened collection but this counting is
still rudimentary (e.g. when asked to add two
collections and told how many object are in each,
children count objects one by one instead of
counting on from the largest screen.) - Initial Number Sequence children are now able
to count-on and to solve addition problems with
one number missing (e.g. 4 _ 7). Children
can also use some count-down strategies (e.g.
15 4 as 14, 13, 12, 11). - Intermediate Number Sequence children are able
to use count-down strategies more efficiently. - Facile Number Sequence children can now use a
range of strategies not limited to counting by
ones (e.g. recognizing that there is a 10 in all
teen numbers). - Once children have advanced to Stage 6, they
progress through 3 levels involving the use of
base-ten strategies. - Base-Ten Arithmetical Strategies
- Level 1 Initial Concept of Ten Children can
count to and from 10 by ones but do not recognize
ten as a unit. - Level 2 Intermediate Concept of Ten Children
now recognize 10 as a unit, but cannot perform
any operations on it without the components being
represented in groups of ones (e.g. two open
hands) they cannot perform operations on tens in
the written form. - Level 3 Facile Concept of Ten Children are
now able to solve addition and subtraction
problems without material representations.
19
23- Part B
- FNWS, BNWS, and Numeral Identification
- Number words are the spoken and heard names of
numbers (Wright, et al). The LFIN draws an
important distinction between a child being able
to actually count and being able to recite a list
numbers in the correct order. Knowledge of
forward and backward number order sequences is a
childs ability to count a sequence of number
words forwards and backwards, not only by ones
but by other units as well. - Johansson2 suggests that childrens knowledge of
number words is related to other numerical
abilities. For example, children may recognize a
structure in number word sequences and use this
structure to solve arithmetic problems. There
are three levels a child goes through to when
learning how to arithmetics - the child uses physical objects to represent
addends (e.g. David has 3 apples and Simon has 2
apples. How many apples are there?) - the child uses non-physical representations to
solve problems (e.g. verbal unit items) - the child uses known facts or procedures to solve
problems - Numerals are the written and read form of
numbers. Numeral identification is a childs
ability to produce the name of a given numeral.
Identification is different from recognition in
that to recognize, a child must simply pick out a
named numeral among a random set as opposed to
producing the name him or herself.
20
24- Part C
- Other Aspects of Early Arithmetical Learning
- These aspects are not as directly addressed by
the LFIN but are nevertheless related to
components of parts A and B. - Combining and Partitioning Children may learn to
recognize combinations and partitions of numbers
(e.g. one and four is five seven is three and
four). These sets of numbers become automotized
so that children have knowledge of them without
having to count one by one. - Spatial Patterns and Subitizing This aspect
involves a childs ability to recognize spatial
patterns such as dominos patterns, playing card
patterns, or dot cards. To subitize is a
technical psychological term which means to
capture the number of dots in a stimulus without
actually counting them. - Temporal Sequences These are stimuli, such as
sounds or movements, that occur sequentially
time. - Finger Patterns Childrens use of fingers
strategies increases in complexity as they
advance through the stages of SEAL. Eventually
it is expected that children will no longer rely
on their fingers, but these strategies play a
very important role in early stages. - Base-Five (Quinary-Based) Strategies Base-five
strategies are useful in situations that involve
sets of five items.
21
25- Strategy Competence
- In a study of children with math and reading
difficulties, Torbeyns et al.3 concluded that
strategy competence develops along the following
four dimensions - strategy repertoire
- strategy distribution
- strategy efficiency
- strategy selection
- Compared with typically developing children,
children who have mathematical disabilities in
the first and second grades - have the same strategy repertoire (retrieval,
counting) - use retrieval less
- use more immature forms of counting
- are slower at selecting strategies
- implement strategies less accurately
- make less adaptive strategy choices
- Most of these differences between MD and typical
children seem to decrease with age, however
strategy frequency characteristics remain.
Children with MD show less strategy development
than typical children (e.g. they continue to rely
on counting strategies, while typical children
use retrieval at an increasing frequency) and
these differences may exist as a result of a
developmental delay instead of a developmental
deficit. That is, the mathematical abilities of
children with MD develop more slowly than those
of typical children, but they eventually develop
nonetheless.
22
26- References
- Wright, Martlund, Stafford, 2000
- Johansson 2005
- Torbeyns et al.
23
274) Characteristics of Students with Math
Difficulties
- Overview
- According to Chiappe,1 math difficulties (MD)
appear to be the consequence of a specific
deficit rather than a general learning problem.
If MD were a result of some general deficit,
those children with problems in math would also
experience problems in other areas, but this is
not the case. Two factors that may be responsible
for MD some children encounter are problems with
number representation and the inability to
process numerical stimuli. Longitudinal research
provides support for the latter. - Studies have documented the existence of number
representation and processing as early as infancy
and early childhood. 1 Interruptions in the
normal development of these processes may be the
cause of math deficits found in older children.
An improper representation of number can cause
difficulties in counting, number sense, and
discriminating quantities. For example, some
children are able to count from one to five, but
do now know whether 4 is greater than 2 or 2 is
greater than 4.1
24
28- Children with learning problems have difficulties
describing what they are thinking when they added
numbers.2 However, they use strategies similar
to those used by typical children when adding
numbers (count-all, and count-on, with or without
the use of physical objects). This suggests
that, similar to typically developing children,
children with learning problems do in fact
acknowledge relationships between numbers instead
of simply depending on rote memorization when
performing addition problems. - One issue to be aware of is that sometimes
students may provide a correct answer to a math
problem by using the wrong strategy. It is
important to keep this in mind, because it could
easily go unnoticed in a classroom situation.2
It has been documented that sometimes children
try to hide their hands while counting on their
fingers. Due to the fact that students with
learning problems may never pass the point of
depending on physical objects to count, it is
important to encourage the use of these objects
when performing math problems. 2 -
25
29- Math for Students with Disabilities3
- Students that have difficulties with math in
elementary school seem to have more problems
retrieving number facts in higher grades. This
difficulty perpetuates into upper level math such
as algebra. - Counting strategies
- another difference that shows up between students
with and without math difficulties is the
complexity of their counting strategies - young students with math difficulties may use the
same strategies as students without difficulties,
but they tend to make more mistakes - the strategies that students use to count are a
good predictor of how receptive they will be to
traditional teaching techniques - Reading difficulties seem to exacerbate the
problems that students encounter in mathematics. - One of the primary deficits in students with math
difficulties is poor calculation fluency
(recalling number facts quickly and relying on
simple strategies).
26
30- Number sense
- Defined as
- fluency in estimating and judging magnitude
- ability to recognize unreasonable results
- flexibility when mentally computing
- ability to move among different representations
and to use the most appropriate representation - Two indicators of number sense in young children
are counting ability and quantity discrimination.
Quantity discrimination may be associated with
informal math learning that occurs outside of the
school setting, whereas counting may be more
dependent on formal education - Number sense may be used to predict future
performance in other areas of math, the first
four of which are influenced by instruction - quantity discrimination/magnitude comparison
- missing number in a sequence
- number identification
- rapid naming
- working memory
- Early intervention should focus on
27
31- Some suggestions for interventions include3
- encouraging student to depend on their retrieval
skills as opposed to counting - technologies that allow individualized practice
- instruction focusing on strategy development and
use - automatization of number facts and teaching
shortcuts - improves both number sense and fluency
- small group work that promotes familiarity and
comfort with numbers - developing math vocabulary
- structured peer work
- using visuals and multiple representations
- teaching strategies that could be used as a
hook for problem-solving
28
32- Assessment of Math Difficulties4
- Problems that students with special needs often
encounter while learning math include - inadequate or unsuitable instruction
- curriculum that is too fast-paced
- lack of structure which promotes discovery
learning - teachers use of language that does not math
students level of understanding - early use of abstract symbols
- trouble reading math word problems (students with
reading difficulties) - problems with basic math relationships which
propagate into higher-level math - insufficient revision of early learned math
concepts - In order to avoid simply watering-down the math
curriculum for students with learning
difficulties, is may be useful to incorporate
math in other areas of learning such as social
studies, sciences, reading, and writing. - The first step towards fostering a more solid
understanding of math in students with
difficulties is to determine what they already
know, identify any holes that may exist, and
formulate a plan to fill these holes. This may
be done by constructing mathematical skills
inventories which reflect the curriculum to be
taught. Teachers may keep track of the types of
mistakes students are making, and use these
patterns to identify weaknesses. - Informal interviews between teacher and student
may also be a useful technique to identify skills
and weaknesses. Several areas that are important
in problem-solving ability are
29
33- Asking questions like why did the student have
trouble with this area?, would the use of
concrete objects or other aids help the student
solve this problem? and is the student able to
explain to me what to do? may help determine the
extent of difficulty, and where exactly the
misunderstanding occurs in the problem-solving
process. - To build on a students existing knowledge, it
must first be determine how much the student
knows. Assessment can be broken down into three
Levels - Level 1 The student has trouble with basic
number. First, examine the students vocabulary
of number relationships and conservation of
number. Assessment must then be done by
examining each of the following items in order - sort by a single attribute
- sort by two attributes
- create equal sets using one-to-one matching
- count objects to ten, then twenty
- recognize numerals to ten, then twenty
- correctly order number symbols to ten, then
twenty - write down spoken numbers to ten, then twenty
- understand ordinality (first, seventh, fourth,
etc) - add numbers below ten with counters and in
writing - subtract numbers below ten with counters and in
writing - count-on in addition
- solve simple oral addition and subtraction
problems (numbers below ten) - familiarity with coins and paper currency
30
34- Level 2 Performance is slightly higher than in
Level 1. Assess the following - mental addition below twenty
- mental problem-solving without using fingers or
tally-marking - mental subtraction is there a discrepancy
between addition and subtraction performance? - vertical and horizontal written addition
- understanding of addition commutativity (i.e. the
order of addends does not matter) does the
student always count-on from the largest number? - understanding of additive composition (every
possible way of producing a number e.g. 4 is
13, 22, 31, and 40) - understanding of the complementary order of
addition and subtraction problems. For example,
7 3 4 3 4 7 and 5 3 2 5 2 3. - translate an operation observed in concrete
objects to a written equation - transfer a written equation into a concrete
equation - translate a real-life scenario into a written
problem and solve it - recognize and write numbers up to fifty
- tell digital and analogue time
- list the days of the week
- list the months of the year
31
35- Level 3 The student is able to perform most of
the item in Level 1 and 2 - read and write numbers to 100, then 1000
- read and write money additions
- mentally compute halves or doubles
- perform mental addition of money determine
amounts of change using count-on - memorize and recite multiplication tables
- add hundreds, tens, units and thousands,
hundreds, tens, units with and without carrying - know the place values with thousands, hundreds,
tens, units - subtraction algorithm with and without exchanging
columns - correctly perform the multiplication algorithm
- correctly perform the division algorithm
- understand fractions
- correctly read and solve basic word problems
- Translating abstract concepts into tangible,
concrete problems is helpful for children with
learning disabilities. It is important however,
to ensure that students do not learn to rely on
these physical objects, and that they gradually
transition from concrete to abstract
understanding.
32
36- Language Ability and Math Difficulties5
- Children with specific language impairment (SLI)
appear to have difficulties in counting and
knowledge of basic number facts, however they are
quite successful on written calculations with
small numbers. One area that may cause trouble
for students with SLI is the increased amount and
complexity of mathematical vocabulary these
children are exposed to in higher elementary
school (grades 4 and 5). This presents a problem
because children with SLI have a tough time
retrieving information that has been rote
memorized. Another area in which children with
SLI show difficulty is information-processing and
this difficulty can produce challenges with the
recall of declarative knowledge, and procedural
knowledge. The mathematics required of upper
elementary school students demands a combination
of conceptual, procedural and declarative
knowledge all of which present problems for
children with SLI. - Students with SLI are poorer at recalling number
facts as well as using correct procedures for
problem solving. They tend to rely more on
simple strategies like counting and less on
advanced strategies like retrieval. - Children with SLI perform better on written
calculation tasks when they are un-timed,
suggesting that these children are indeed capable
of performing well, just at a slower pace than
typically developing children. Written
calculation task performance was much worse when
children were timed. Tasks that are performed
under a time constraint tend to load on working
memory, which ties in to why children with SLI
would show difficulties on such problems.
33
37- It is possible that the discrepancy between
information-processing abilities in typically
developing children and children with SLI may be
explained in part by the improved automaticity in
typically developing children. If true, children
with SLI who are given the opportunity to
practice may show improvements in their own
automaticity, thus freeing up cognitive resources
that could be used for other processes.
Moreover, childrens performance on timed tasks
should improve if they are taught strategies to
automatize because they can spend less time tasks
that were once controlled and consciously
attended to. Two ways in which automatization
might be encouraged are computer-based
interventions and paper-and-pencil drill and
practice games. - Another factor that may play role in the
difficulty that children with SLI encounter when
it comes to math problems is that many of these
children are living in poverty and often receive
poorer education that children from a more
affluent family. - Children with SLI experienced may problems with
the procedural aspect of calculations. The
author suggests two ways to rectify this problem
(1) by encouraging students to think through
the steps involved in answering a particular
question, and (2) instructing children to ask
themselves questions such as what operation must
I use for this problem? Teaching students to
confirm their answers to math problems (e.g. 87
24 63, 63 24 87) may help them understand
mathematical concepts and relationships. - Finally, childrens attitudes and feelings
towards math, and interactions with other
students.
34
38- References
- Chiappe
- Hanrahan
- Gersten et al
- Chap 12
- Fazio 1999
35
395) Strategies for Teaching Children with Math
Difficulties
- Goals of Instruction1
- There are five goals of mathematics education to
learn the value of mathematics, to build
confidence in mathematic ability, to learn how to
solve mathematical problems, to learn how to
communicate mathematically, and reason
mathematically. - Students proficient in math possess the following
skills - Conceptual understanding understanding of
concepts, relations, and operations. - Procedural fluency perform procedures with
skill, speed, and accuracy. - Strategic competence develop appropriate plans
for problem-solving. - Adaptive reasoning the ability to think about
problems flexibly and from different
perspectives. - Productive disposition enjoying and appreciating
math, and being motivated to improve mathematical
ability.
36
40- It is important to distinguish between and
identify math difficulties and disabilities,
because the identification and intervention may
prevent children with math weaknesses from
developing a full disability. - New amendments to American legislation have
recently been made in a project called IDEA.
These modifications are geared towards helping
children with learning disabilities as well as
their families and teachers. Three areas that
are affected by the amendments are criteria for
determination of eligibility, whether the child
will respond to research-based intervention, and
the percentage of federal funds that may be
allotted to early intervention services.
37
41- Student-Centered Approach
- It was once believed that math should be taught
in the form of rule-based instruction, whereas
now, research supports a more student-focused
form of instruction. That is, teachers should
consider students existing mathematical
knowledge and provide an environment in which
realistic problems combine with and strengthen
this existing knowledge. This process is called
Realistic Mathematics Education (RME).2 - According to Milo et al.2 one responsibility of
the teacher is to facilitate knowledge
construction based on the students existing
knowledge. One kind of instruction is guiding
instruction - Guiding instruction the instructors role is to
guide the student to a more solid understanding
of math by combining new knowledge with the
students own contributions (guiding instruction)
as opposed to simply directing the students about
mathematical concepts (directing instruction).
In guiding instruction, students are encouraged
to reflect upon new strategies that they learn,
which teaches them to choose more appropriate
strategies in the futures. - However, students with special needs may not
benefit from this type of instruction.
Generally, students with learning problems have
difficulties structuring the strategies that they
learn. Consequently, a more directive
instructional approach may be more appropriate - Directing instruction the teacher provides the
student with explicit rules and structure may
reduce the ambiguity that sometimes exists in
guiding instruction.
38
42- In the directing instruction, one specific
strategy may be taught in isolation, as opposed
to guiding instruction, where students are
encouraged to compare and choose (based on their
own existing knowledge) among multiple
strategies, and then to explain their choices.
Typically-developing children may benefit most
from guiding instruction, while children with
special needs benefit more from directing
instruction. The use of supporting models (e.g.
number lines, number position schemes) also
contribute to the special needs students
understanding of appropriate and effective
strategy use. - Children may tend to rely more on strategies
formally learned in school and less on strategies
they may have learned before entering school.3
Children also show overconfidence in these
strategies, regardless of their effectiveness.
Because school-taught strategies tend to be
fairly rigid, it is important to emphasize
flexibility.
39
43- General Considerations
- Some important points to remember when providing
instruction4 - Differentiation recognize differences among
individual students and modify instruction
according to these differences. This method may
be used with students who have disabilities or
learning problems, and also those who are the
most gifted. Examples - personalized learning objectives for each student
- adapting curricula to suit the students
cognitive level - different paths of learning for different
learning styles - spend more or less time on lessons depending on
students rates of learning - modifying instructional resources (manuals,
texts) - allow the students to produce work through a
variety of media - be flexible with grouping students
- adjusting the amount of help or guidance giving
to each student - Simplicity There are many different ways to
adjust, modify, or adapt instruction.
However, it is best to keep things simple. - use only one or two differentiation strategies in
the classroom at once - only when necessary
40
44- CARPET PATCH A mnemonic device which summarizes
methods that teachers may use to implement
differentiation. - C curriculum content
- A activities
- R resource materials
- P products from lessons (what students are
asked to produce) - E environment
- T teaching strategies
- P pace
- A amount of assistance
- T testing and grading
- C classroom groupings
- H homework assignments
- Other helpful strategies
- re-teach some concepts using different language
and examples - use different techniques to maintain interest of
less motivated students - modify the amount and detail of feedback given to
students
41
45- Helpful Tips1
- Counting. Sometimes children will learn to
memorize counting rhymes, but not connect these
rhymes with the actual counting of physical
objects. Guidance (hand-over-hand or direct,
explicit teaching) may help students to make this
connection, which is so fundamental in early math
learning. - Numerals. Familiarity and recognition of numerals
may be fostered by repetition presentation in the
form of flash cards or other games.
Over-learning gives lower-ability students the
chance to establish a solid base on which they
can build higher math skills. - Written numbers. Children with learning
difficulties may have problems if introduced to
written number symbols too early. A good
alternative is to use dot schemes, tally marks,
or other number representations before using
number symbols. - Number Facts. Another area of weakness for some
students with learning difficulties is the
automatic retrieval of number facts (e.g. 4 2
6) as well as knowledge about mathematical
procedures (what to do when you see ).
Ensuring that students learn facts and
computational procedures through increased
regular practice and number games will allow them
to solve math problems more quickly and easily.
Calculators can also be used to aid students with
computational difficulties, but some teachers may
not wish to substitute traditional written math
with an electronic device. - Number Games. Instead of having children
complete traditional exercises and worksheets,
turn math learning into a game. Using small
candies or toys can make lessons interesting and
fun, but it is important to make sure that these
lessons remains educational, not just
entertaining.
42
46- Where Next?1
- Once students form a solid knowledge base of
numbers and counting, lessons may be advanced to
actual computation in the horizontal and vertical
forms. When a student is learning these
procedures, it is important that they receive
consistent help from teachers, aides, and
parents. The same language, cues, and steps
should be used so that the student does not
become confused. However, it is also important
to teach students a variety of techniques to
solve these problems, particularly ones which
will help the student learn more about number
structure and composition. - It has been shown that adults rely more on
addition and subtraction in every day life than
multiplication and division, so if a teacher must
prioritize math curriculum, it may be useful to
focus most on addition and subtraction, followed
by multiplication, and finally division. - Students with perceptual problems may require
slight modifications in teaching material in
order to perform on paper-and-pencil problems.
Some examples that may be useful are thick
vertical lines, squared paper, and small arrows
or dots that the students may follow on the page.
43
47- Teaching Problem-Solving1
- The next step in math learning, problem-solving,
could be a particularly difficult task for
students with disabilities because they may have
trouble in the following areas - reading the words
- understanding specific words within the problem
- comprehending the problem in general
- linking an appropriate strategy to the problem
- Consequently, students may feel overwhelmed or
hopeless when attempting such problems and it is
important to teach them how to feel confident and
comfortable working through these problems. - People generally problem-solve in the following
order - interpret the target problem
- identify strategies needed to solve the problem
- change the problem into an appropriate algorithm
- perform computations
- evaluate the solution
44
48- The use of mnemonics may be useful to teach
students a particular strategy. For example,
RAVE CCC - R Read carefully
- A Attend to key information that gives clues
about necessary procedures - V Visualize the problem
- E Estimate a potential solution
- Once these steps have been taken, CCC outlines
what should follow - C Choose numbers
- C Calculate a solution
- C Check this solution (cross reference with
your estimate) - Ideally, as students become more comfortable with
problem-solving procedures and strategies,
teachers may move from direct instruction to
less-involved guided practice and eventually the
student may become and independent
problem-solver. - The use of calculations does not impede students
progression from basic number sense, to
computational skill, to problem-solving
proficiency. In fact, the use of a calculator
may allow teachers to focus more on teaching
higher-level problem-solving strategies, and it
has even been suggested that students who use
calculators develop more positive feelings about
math.
45
49- Other techniques teachers may use to facilitate
problem-solving competence in students with
learning difficulties include - teaching difficult vocabulary before-hand
- using cues to show students where to begin and
where to go from there (e.g. arrows) - connecting problems with students own life
- allowing students to create problems and have
other people solve them - encouraging the use self-monitoring and
self-correction - As always, teachers shoul